Psychological dynamics and self-perceptions of vasectomy candidates.

Growing concern with population control has focused attention on various methods of contraception including vasectomy. Psychological research on this topic is scant, however. In this study, 9 vasectomy candidates who were undergoing the operation were compared to 9 husbands whose wives were about to have a tubal ligation. Their responses on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Adjective Check List were compared. Most of the data showed no significant differences except on one scale of Counseling Readiness. The results, and others, indicate that vasectomy candidates may have a tendency to deny the anxiety connected with the operation due to its irreversible nature.     

Social Comparison in Medically High-Risk Pregnant Women1

The present study examined social comparison processes in 147 pregnant women at high risk of incurring an adverse birth outcome such as fetal loss or preterm delivery. These women typically undergo physical and psychological changes which elevate uncertainty and distress. Theoretically derived hypotheses concerning the impact of threat, self-esteem, perceived control, age, and gravidity (previous pregnancy) on social comparison were tested. Women experiencing low pregnancy-related threat and those with higher self-esteem were more likely to compare themselves favorably to other pregnant women. Younger women who had not been pregnant before compared most frequently; comparisons of physical state were more common than comparisons of emotional well-being or interpersonal relationships. Results are contrasted with social comparison processes in other populations facing stressful life events.     

The Nature and Dynamics of Post-Sterilization Regret in Married Women 1

Data for nine different indicators of regret were collected from 213 married women with a tubal sterilization and 137 wives of men with a vasectomy at 1,2, and 3 years following surgical sterilization. Relationships between the indicators across the 3 years and within each year were analyzed, using two psychological models. A final, combined model was synthesized and fitted to the data. This model addresses many of the important issues of reliability and validity that have plagued the literature on post-sterilization regret for years.     

Attitudes toward consequences of pregnancy in young women attending a family planning clinic

This study examines the relationship between young women's knowledge and attitude concerning pregnancy and their sexual behavior. The study involved 78 young women (14-20 years of age) who had attended a midwestern family planning clinic. Primarily from a larger socioeconomic status, 70% of the participants said that they had never been pregnant. Adapting the testing methods of previous investigations, the study presented the participants with various exams intended to measure the following: 1) knowledge concerning "how babies are made"; 2) knowledge regarding intercourse and pregnancy; 3) anticipation of future consequences of adolescent childbirth; 4) anticipation of immediate consequences or fears of adolescent pregnancy. The study also examined the participants' contraceptive behavior and pregnancy history. The findings indicate that knowledge concerning understanding "how babies are made" does not influence sexual behavior, with no significant difference found between contraceptive users and non-contraceptive users. Also, the participants generally had accurate knowledge concerning intercourse and pregnancy. But the study did reveal significant differences in the evaluation of the consequences of pregnancy and childbirth. Those women who had previously been pregnant -- including those who had terminated their pregnancies -- showed a less negative attitude towards the consequences of pregnancy and childbirth than those who had never been pregnant. Furthermore, as the age of the women increased, the attitude became more positive. However, the study found that the attitude towards the consequences of pregnancy and childbirth had no impact on contraceptive behavior.     

The consequences of abortion legislation

This article examines the consequences of the 1973 US Supreme Court decision legalizing abortion as well as potential implications of proposed legilation aimed at nullifying this decision. In addition to giving women the right to determine their own reproduction, legal abortion had had beneficial health effects for both mothers and infants. The partial reversal of abortion gains due to restrictions on public funding and limitations on how and where abortions can be performed has produced a slight increase in abortion mortality, but the impact has not been dramatic. Moreover, each year since 1973, women have been obtaining abortions earlier in pregnancy. Abortion may be experienced as a loss by the mother, but there is no evidence of serious psychological sequelae. In contrast, a large body of evidence supports the physical, psychological, and social benefits of legal abortion to women, children, and families. However, proponents of the proposed Human Life Amendment place protection of the rights of the fetus over all other considerations. Their antiabortion actions have challenged the medical tradition of privacy and the confidentiality of the doctor-patient relationship. Most supporters of legal abortion would prefer that there be fewer abortions; such a decrease is more likely as a result of better education and contraceptive methods rather than coercion.     

Male Partners' Appraisals of Undesired Pregnancy and Abortion: Implications for Women's Adjustment to Abortion

The impact of men's attributions for pregnancy and expectations for coping with abortion on their partner's post-abortion adjustment was examined. Men's and women's attributions and coping expectations were assessed in a sample of 73 couples prior to obtaining a first-trimester abortion of an undesired pregnancy. Women's depression was assessed 30 minutes post-abortion. Partners did not differ in their coping expectations or attributions of the pregnancy to chance, situation, another person, or their own behavior, but men blamed the pregnancy more on their own character than did their partners. Male partner's coping expectancies affected women's adjustment only if the women themselves had low coping expectancies. Among women with low coping expectancies, those accompanied by partners who also had low coping expectancies were the most depressed. Men's attributions were unrelated to their partner's adjustment.     

The impact of breastfeeding on mothers' attentional sensitivity towards infant distress

Background

Maternal response towards infant distress has an important impact on infant development. In animals it is established that lactation and pup suckling plays an important role in maintaining maternal responses. Previous research suggests that breastfeeding is associated with sensitive maternal responses in human mothers. However, this may be because women who are more sensitive to their infant choose to breastfeed. The current study investigated the attentional sensitivity towards infant distress in women who went on to breast or formula feed during pregnancy as well as after birth. We hypothesised that differences in breast and formula feeding mothers would only emerge after birth once feeding had commenced.

Method

Women were recruited during pregnancy through community midwives as part of a longitudinal study. 51 women were seen during late pregnancy and between 3 and 6 months after birth (27 were breast and 24 were formula feeding). Sensitivity to infant distress was measured as the extent of women's attentional bias towards infant distress stimuli.

Results

After birth, we found that our index of attentional bias towards infant distress was 37 ms (0.5 S.D.s) (CI; 6-69, p = 0.021) higher in breastfeeding compared to formula feeding mothers. However, mothers who went on to breastfeed did not show greater attentional bias towards infant distress already during late pregnancy.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that the act of breastfeeding may influence mothers’ attentional sensitivity towards infant distress. Previous research suggests breastfeeding is indicative of sensitive parenting. The current findings may suggest a mechanism by which breastfeeding and/or associated infant interaction could contribute to this sensitivity.     

The Predictors of Post-Sterilization Regret in Married Women1

We interviewed a sample of 317 married women prior to a tubal sterilization (195) or a husband's vasectomy (122) and then reinterviewed them yearly for 5 years. Using these women's responses to six questions about their feelings and desires following sterilization, we fitted a latent-variable model of post-sterilization regret to the data by means of a linear structural equation analysis. The results confirmed our view that post-sterilization regret was not a simple psychological state but rather was a complex process with different, causally linked manifestations. This process began with a renewed interest in having a baby, proceeded to the development of negative feeling about the three decisions that lead to sterilization, and concluded with a desire to reverse the surgery. This sequence was affected by the negative, post-sterilization effects of the sterilization and by the Occurrence of divorce. Next, we identified the pre-sterilization predictors of six regret variables from our model by means of a series of linear regression analyses. The major pre-sterilization predictors of the regret process included being relatively young, ambivalence about future childbearing, negative attitudes toward sterilization, dominance of the decision making by the woman's husband, and conflict with her husband during decision making. Finally, we divided the sample into quintiles on the basis of their scores on a Pre-Sterilization Predictor Scale and assessed the performance of our predictor variables as indicators of risk of regret by determining the level of negative feelings toward sterilization in each quintile. The results confirm the discriminatory power of our predictors. The overall findings indicate a number of psychological and marital issues, the exploration of which might help counselors provide anticipatory and preventative services to couples seeking sterilization.     

Sex differences in body-cathexis associated with exercise involvement

The purpose of this study was to examine sex differences in body-cathexis associated with exercise involvement. Data were collected from exercising groups of 52 women and 23 men volunteers from a university fitness improvement class and from comparison groups of 41 women and 9 men volunteers from classes unrelated to exercise. Multivariate analysis of variance of prestudy body-cathexis scores identified significant sex differences; men had much higher body-cathexis for waist, hip, thigh, fitness, and weight than did women. Multivariate analysis of poststudy data, normalized to control for prestudy sex differences, yielded a significant effect for the exercise involvement of fitness class men and women. Regular exercise seems to have potential as a method for improving body-cathexis for both men and women. Further research on methods for improving satisfaction with weight is needed.     

Negative emotional responses to motherhood-related support receipt during pregnancy predict postpartum depressive symptoms

Background and Objectives: Prenatal stress increases risk for postpartum depression. While social support availability may attenuate this risk, little research has examined support receipt during pregnancy, which has been linked to increased distress in other domains. This study assesses the implications of motherhood-related and motherhood-unrelated support receipt for daily distress during pregnancy and tests whether negative responsiveness to motherhood-related support predicts postpartum depression risk. Design and Method: Thirty-one pregnant women were recruited from the community for a 3-wave study (beginning at approximately 26 weeks gestation, 34 weeks gestation, and 4 weeks postpartum). Each wave included a survey of general characteristics (e.g. depressive symptoms) and a two-week diary period measuring mood, stress, and support. Results: A multilevel model analysis suggested that motherhood-related support predicted greater increases in daily distress than motherhood-unrelated support. Follow-up regression analysis showed that those who responded more negatively to motherhood-related support reported higher postpartum depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Although preliminary due to the sample size, the results suggest that how women interpret and respond to support may contribute to postpartum depression risk. Future research should focus on how mothers can more positively construe the support they receive in addition to how to increase the support available to them.     

The Roles of Gender and Affirmative Action Attitude in Reactions to Test Score Use Methods1

The present study explored the effects of 2 variables, affirmative action (AA) attitude and gender, on reactions to 3 test score use (TSU) methods: top‐down selection. banding with random selection, and banding with preferences. In a study of 94 upper‐division and graduate business students, AA attitude was associated with different reactions to TSU methods in terms of fairness and organizational attractiveness. Moreover, women with negative AA attitudes and men rated banding with preferences lower than the other two methods, but women with positive AA attitudes did not Results are discussed in terms of applicant reactions models, implications for organizations and future research.     

Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Women With Generalized Anxiety Disorder in the Perinatal Period: Impact on Problematic Behaviors

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is the most frequently diagnosed anxiety disorder among women in the perinatal period (pregnancy to one year postpartum). Recent studies have examined the relationship between problematic behaviors and GAD symptoms. Studies in nonperinatal samples indicate that adults with GAD engage in avoidance and safety behaviors and these behaviors are associated with greater symptom severity. Little research has examined the use of problematic behaviors among pregnant or postpartum women. However, preliminary research suggests that these behaviors may have a negative impact on both anxious women and their children. Our aim was to examine the extent to which women with GAD in pregnancy or the postpartum engage in problematic behaviors and whether cognitive behavioral therapy is effective in reducing these behaviors. Fifty-eight women with GAD in pregnancy or postpartum were recruited from a larger clinical trial (Clinicaltrials.gov ID NCT02850523) evaluating the effectiveness of group-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBGT) for perinatal anxiety disorders. The results indicated that women with perinatal GAD reported high levels of avoidance and safety behaviors and greater engagement in these behaviors was associated with higher levels of worry and related symptoms. CBGT was effective in reducing GAD symptoms and problematic behaviors and a bidirectional relationship was found between changes in worry and problematic behaviors during treatment. Limitations and future directions are discussed.     

Successful Use of Peer Educators for Sharing Genetic Information

This study examined the impact of a genetics education module provided by Reach to Recovery peer volunteers. Participants included 113 women with confirmed breast cancer diagnoses. Eighty-eight of these women (78%) completed a baseline survey, participated in a peer-led intervention, and completed a follow-up survey. Approximately half of the women received an education module that included a genetic component, while the other half did not. Results indicated that women who received the genetics module had greater increases in genetics knowledge than the group that did not receive the module. However, follow-up interest in genetic testing was not significantly different between the two groups. Results indicate that a peer-led genetics module can increase knowledge about genetics. However, it does not appear to have a differential effect on genetic testing interest.     

The Effect of Simultaneous Exercise and Exposure to Thin-Ideal Music Videos on Women’s State Self-Objectification, Mood and Body Satisfaction

The present study examined the simultaneous impact of thin-ideal music videos and exercise on state self-objectification, mood and body satisfaction, in order to assess whether exercise can ameliorate the usually found negative effects of appearance-focused media. One-hundred and eighty-four South Australian undergraduate women viewed appearance-focused or neutral music videos, with half in each condition simultaneously participating in a bout of exercise or in quiet rest. Participants completed pre- and post- state measures of mood, body satisfaction and self-objectification. As expected, exposure to appearance-focused music videos produced increased state self-objectification in comparison to neutral images. For body satisfaction, an interaction emerged for the dimension of physical attractiveness, whereby women who exercised and watched appearance-focused video clips felt more attractive than women watching the same clips who did not exercise, and felt no less attractive than women who watched neutral clips. The findings demonstrate that thin-ideal music videos serve to increase state self-objectification, but that exercise can ameliorate the negative effects of idealized media images on women’s feelings of physical attractiveness.     

Personality and social resources in immediate and continued stress resistance among women

In this study we investigated the immediate and continued impact on women of a major stressful event, the outcome of pregnancy, and the mitigating effect of self-esteem and intimacy with their spouse on their reactions. Few other studies have investigated initial reactions to crisis events. Ninety-nine Israeli women who experienced either normal delivery or pregnancy complications were interviewed at the time of the event and 3 months later. High self-esteem was found to limit feelings of depression at both times. Intimacy with spouse limited depression at the event, but not at follow-up. High self-esteem was seen as always being exploitable by women who possessed it, whereas the benefit of intimacy with spouse was seen as being dependent on situational demands and environmental constraints. Cross-cultural implications were presented.     

Directing gaze: The effect of disclaimer labels on women's visual attention to fashion magazine advertisements

In an effort to combat the known negative effects of exposure to unrealistic thin ideal images, there is increasing worldwide pressure on fashion, media and advertising industries to disclose when images have been digitally altered. The current study used eye tracking technology to investigate experimentally how digital alteration disclaimer labels impact women's visual attention to fashion magazine advertisements. Participants were 60 female undergraduate students who viewed four thin ideal advertisements with either no disclaimer, a generic disclaimer, or a specific more detailed disclaimer. It was established that women did attend to the disclaimers. The nature of the disclaimer had no effect on time spent looking at particular body parts, but did affect the direction of gaze following reading of the disclaimer. This latter effect was found to be greater for women high on trait appearance comparison. Further research is paramount in guiding effective policy around the use of disclaimer labels.     

Miscarriage:

Miscarriage is the most frequent of all pregnancy losses, yet little is known of its impact on those who experience it. This exploratory study examines the relationship between the impact of miscarriage and nine variables: (a) length of pregnancy; (b) cause of miscarriage; (c) age at time of miscarriage; (d) intentionality of pregnancy; (e) duration of time since miscarriage; (f) other children; (g) other childbearing losses; (h) number of miscarriages; and (i) gender of expectant parent. Statistical analyses of data gathered from 120 participants indicated that gender, length of pregnancy, and one or more prior induced abortions contributed significantly to the prediction of current subjective distress. In a closer examination of the nature of that distress, gender and length of pregnancy were predictive of intrusive distress, while length of pregnancy and prior induced abortion(s) were predictive of predictive of avoidant distress. Implications for therapy with women who miscarry are discussed.     

GI Joe or Average Joe? The impact of average-size and muscular male fashion models on men's and women's body image and advertisement effectiveness

Increasing body size and shape diversity in media imagery may promote positive body image. While research has largely focused on female models and women's body image, men may also be affected by unrealistic images. We examined the impact of average-size and muscular male fashion models on men's and women's body image and perceived advertisement effectiveness. A sample of 330 men and 289 women viewed one of four advertisement conditions: no models, muscular, average-slim or average-large models. Men and women rated average-size models as equally effective in advertisements as muscular models. For men, exposure to average-size models was associated with more positive body image in comparison to viewing no models, but no difference was found in comparison to muscular models. Similar results were found for women. Internalisation of beauty ideals did not moderate these effects. These findings suggest that average-size male models can promote positive body image and appeal to consumers.     

Prevalence of mood symptoms and depressions during pregnancy: implications for clinical practice and research

A review of the literature demonstrates that the incidence of new mental disorders and their prevalence during pregnancy is similar to the 12-month incidence of mental disorders in women during other periods of their lives. The prevalence of severe mood, behavior, and cognitive symptoms during pregnancy is rather high. Severe mental symptoms during pregnancy have been reported to be associated with an increased rate of complications during pregnancy and delivery, preterm deliveries, low birth weight, a higher rate of postpartum depression, and a longer-term impact on the offspring's development. Several pre-pregnancy risk factors to develop dysphoric symptoms have been reported, but their utility for primiparous women with no previous history of mental disorders is unclear. The association of mental symptoms with general symptoms and biological changes during pregnancy is also unclear. Given the short- and long-term impact of dysphoric symptoms and stress during pregnancy on mother and child, efficacious, efficient, and safe prevention and treatment modalities are essential and achievable. Clarification of the nature and phenotyping of mental and general symptoms during pregnancy is an important step for the development of effective interventions.     

Does Parenting Differ Based on Social Class?: African American Women's Perceived Socialization for Achievement

Research has provided some evidence of ethnic group, gender, and class differences in the socialization for achievement. However, there is little research on African American women with the exception of the studies of low-income, single mothers. To understand the similarities and differences in socialization for achievement based on social class, middle-class African American women from working- and middle-class backgrounds were studied using qualitative and quantitative methods to compare them on issues related to achievement socialization. Women from middle-class backgrounds reported that their parents had higher expectations for them and were more involved in their education than did women from working-class backgrounds. More middle-class parents expected their daughters to be successful in careers than did working-class parents. Women from working-class families did receive support from their parents but they did not have as much support as did the women from middle-class backgrounds. Women from working-class families perhaps made use of other sources to support their desire to succeed. There were no differences in perceived race-related socialization based on social class. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.