How can obese weight controllers minimize weight gain during the high risk holiday season? By self-monitoring very consistently.

This study examined the efficacy of augmenting standard weekly cognitive-behavioral treatment for obesity with a self-monitoring intervention during the high risk holiday season. Fifty-seven participants in a long-term cognitive-behavioral treatment program were randomly assigned to self-monitoring intervention or comparison groups. During 2 holiday weeks (Christmas-New Years), the intervention group's treatment was supplemented with additional phone calls and daily mailings, all focused on self-monitoring. As hypothesized, the intervention group self-monitored more consistently and managed their weight better than the comparison group during the holidays. However, both groups struggled with weight management throughout the holidays. These findings support the critical role of self-monitoring in weight control and demonstrate the benefits of a low-cost intervention for assisting weight controllers during the holidays.     

Self-Monitoring of Attention Versus Self-Monitoring of Performance: Examining the Differential Effects Among Students with Emotional Disturbance Engaged in Independent Math Practice

Although students with emotional disturbance are commonly known for their social behavior deficits, they often have academic deficits as well. Unfortunately, most of the intervention research and many of the practices used with this population focus upon their social behavior deficits and fail to recognize the need to improve their academic skills. Therefore, there is a need for identifying research-based interventions that focus on ameliorating social and academic deficits often exhibited by students with emotional disturbance. The purpose of this study was to examine the differential effects of self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of performance on the academic and social behaviors of three minority students identified as having emotional disturbance while independently engaged in practicing mathematical calculations. The findings suggest that students with emotional disturbance may perform better socially and academically during math practice while self-monitoring their academic performance. Social validity data also suggest that students rated self-monitoring of academic performance more favorably than self-monitoring of attention. In addition, all target students in this study exhibited levels of on-task behavior more similar to their peers while self-monitoring academic performance compared to self-monitoring attentive behavior.     

Adolescent self-monitoring

Self-monitoring attributes of 239 adolescents were studied from the viewpoint of providing psychologists and educators with insight into impression management both as a facilitator of youths' development, especially with regard to identity formation, and as a possible detriment due to its overuse in a defensive posture. Adolescents highly adept at self-monitoring displayed social competencies most related to interpersonal adequacy, poise and ascendance; however, medium levels of self-monitoring were associated most with interpersonal values, maturity, and responsibility. It is suggested that high self-monitors may sacrifice concern for others in the interest of self-serving attitudes. Adolescents low in self-esteem are likely to use self-monitoring techniques as a defense against inadequate feelings. Generally, self-monitoring attributes were related mainly to social, rather than intellectual characteristics. In contrast to past research, the use of moderate self-monitoring levels along with sex and self-esteem as variables, provided a means of examining some variation in the adaptive uses of self-monitoring not heretofore observed.     

Self-Monitoring and Performance in Nontraditional Occupations

Previous studies have found that self-monitoring can enhance the job performance of women in traditional male occupations (computer sales, management). The present study tested for this same enhancement effect among men in the traditional female job of staff nurse. Correlations between nurses' scores on the revised Self-Monitoring Test and hospital performance evaluations indicated that the self-monitoring factor of Sensitivity to Expressive Behavior of Others was highly correlated with male nurses' job success but was uncorrelated with female staff nurses' job success. This same self-monitoring factor was also correlated with the job success of female nursing administrators, a job that is "nontraditional" for women in the sense that masculine occupation expectations are generally associated with leadership and management behaviors. It was concluded that self-monitoring ability can facilitate adaptation to nontraditional occupations for both men and women probably because the social skills associated with high self-monitoring can enhance perceptions of occupation legitimacy.     

Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behaviors of At-Risk Middle School Students

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effects of self-monitoring on increasing the on-task behaviors of four at-risk middle school students, and to examine its indirect effects on academic performance. Additionally, we attempted to develop and validate cost- and time-efficient procedures that typical classroom teachers could use. The data from a multiple baseline design across three academic settings, replicated with four students, revealed immediate increases in on-task behavior as each student began to self-monitor in each sequential setting. The data also revealed slightly higher levels of academic performance and, in most instances, gradually accelerating trends. These findings suggest that self-monitoring is a cost- and time-efficient procedure that classroom teachers can use to teach at-risk students to manage their own behaviors.     

Positive parental praise: Increasing reactivity and accuracy of self-observation

The parents of a 6-year-old disruptive boy were observed interacting with their son during 20 assessment-oriented, 10- minute experimental sessions. An experimental design consisting of alternately arranged baseline and self-monitoring conditions was utilized. Following the reversal- to- baseline phase, parents were given specialized training in self-recording positive parental praise. Results indicated that (a) self-monitoring of positive verbalizations was an effective means of producing reactive changes in parental behavior, and (b) training in self-monitoring increased parent-observer accuracy scores to more than acceptable levels of agreement. These findings were discussed with regard to the simplicity of a parental self-observational intervention and recommendations were made for continuing investigations in the area.This research was supported by the University of Montana Research Grant and Fellowship Program.     

Self-monitoring and Sex As Related to Assessment Center Rating and Job Performance

Snyder's Self-Monitoring Test was included in a 1-day assessment center for computer salespersons. It was predicted that self-monitoring would be related to success at the assessment center (where impression management is crucial for employment) and to success in the boundary-spanning role of computer sales. The relationships with self-monitoring were predicted to be stronger for women than for men because these computer sales jobs have been less traditional for women than for men. Results indicate that there were significant correlations between self-monitoring scores and the overall assessment rating only for women. Furthermore, self-monitoring was significantly related to job retention after 1 year only for women, but self-monitoring scores predicted job retention as well as did the assessment center ratings for both men and women. It was suggested that impression management ability (self-monitoring) is more strongly related to job auditions and job retention when the role is nontraditional to gender.     

Self-monitoring personality at work: a meta-analytic investigation of construct validity

The validity of self-monitoring personality in organizational settings was examined. Meta-analyses were conducted (136 samples; total N = 23,191) investigating the relationship between self-monitoring personality and work-related variables, as well as the reliability of various self-monitoring measures. Results suggest that self-monitoring has relevance for understanding many organizational concerns, including job performance and leadership emergence. Sample-weighted mean differences favoring male respondents were also noted, suggesting that the sex-related effects for self-monitoring may partially explain noted disparities between men and women at higher organizational levels (i.e., the glass ceiling). Theory building and additional research are needed to better understand the construct-related inferences about self-monitoring personality, especially in terms of the performance, leadership, and attitudes of those at top organizational levels.     

Effect of a behavioral intervention on dimensions of self-regulation and physical activity among overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes: a pilot study

The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the preliminary effect of a behavioral intervention on the use of self-regulation strategies and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes. 23 individuals recruited from ResearchMatc.org and campus advertisements were randomized into an intervention (n = 12) and control (n = 11) group. The intervention group received a behavioral intervention that used goal setting, time management, and self-monitoring to target dimensions of self-regulation and MVPA. The control received information regarding their PA habits. MVPA was measured via BodyMedia Armbands at pre- and post-test. The use of self-regulatory strategies for MVPA was assessed at pretest and posttest using the Self-Regulation for Exercise Scale. Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to determine the practical impact of the intervention. The intervention had a large effect on all dimensions of self-regulation across time: including total self-regulation (3.15), self-monitoring (4.63), goal setting (3.17), social support (1.29), self-reward (1.98), time management (4.41), and overcoming barriers (2.25). The intervention had no impact on dimensions of MVPA across time. This pilot study demonstrated the ability of a behavioral intervention to improve the use of self-regulation strategies for MVPA in a sample of adults with type 2 diabetes. These findings can further inform the development of health promotion programs to promote self-regulation. Future research should focus on determining ability of improvements in self-regulation to stimulate behavior change.     

Self-monitoring processes in stutterers

The Self-Monitoring Scale developed by Snyder (1974) was administered to 26 adult stutterers and 26 nonstutterers. The purpose of the study was to determine if stutterers differed significantly in their level of self-monitoring compared with fluent speakers. It was hypothesized that stutterers would be classified as low self-monitoring individuals. The results lend support to this hypothesis. Analysis of the scores of the Self-Monitoring Scale, as suggested by Briggs et al. (1980), was also carried out. These findings add further support to the hypothesis that stutterers tend to be low self-monitors.     

Self-monitoring of stuttering: Reactivity and accuracy

The effects of self-monitoring were examined among 33 adult and adolescent stutterers who were divided into three equal-sized groups representing three levels of self-report accuracy. The overall results were in general agreement with the numerous previous reports of the ameliorative effects of self-observation. However, when the data were examined in relation to level of self-report accuracy, the self-monitoring procedure was found to be reliably reactive only for the least accurate group. This unexpected result may have been due to the influence of differences in the severity of disfluencies between subjects. Moreover, present findings suggest that the discrepant conclusions of previous research on the self-monitoring of stuttering may have been the result of a failure to investigate sufficiently large and representative numbers of subjects.     

Internet research: Self-monitoring and judgments of attractiveness

Two studies examined the relationship between self-monitoring and factors influencing romantic attraction to others. In Study 1, participants completed an Internet-mediated version of the Self-Monitoring Scale (Gangestad & Snyder, 1985) and indicated which of two people (one physically attractive, one with a more desirable personality) they found most attractive. Results matched previous findings (Snyder, Berscheid, & Glick, 1985), but the effect was smaller. Study 2, a paper-and-pencil replication of Study 1, examined whether the weaker effect was due to Internet mediation and found no differences in the choices made by high and low self-monitors. Results suggested that while determinants of attraction may vary for different populations, Internet research methods can tap the same phenomena as traditional laboratory studies.     

Targeting Performance Dimensions in Sequence According to the Instructional Hierarchy: Effects on Children’s Math Work Within a Self-Monitoring Program

Four fifth-grade students were presented with frustration-level math probes while three performance dimensions were measured (i.e., percent intervals on-task, percent correct digits, and digits correct per minute (DCM)). Using a multiple baseline design across participants, students were trained to self-monitor time on-task, accuracy, and productivity in sequence and were given their choice of preferred rewards for increases in each performance dimension. The effects of self-monitoring productivity plus rewards prior to and after reaching on-task and accuracy criteria were also evaluated on a probe basis using an embedded multielement design. Results showed that three of the four students increased DCM when self-monitoring productivity plus rewards, but only after meeting on-task and accuracy criteria. Effects of self monitoring accuracy were mixed, and all students showed high levels of on-task behavior throughout the study. The implications of these results for increasing the effectiveness of self-monitoring through a sequenced approach to academic skill training are discussed.     

Are Chameleons Good Citizens? A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between Self-Monitoring and Organizational Citizenship Behavior

In this study the relationship between self-monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) was examined longitudinally among professional and managerial employees of a federal government research laboratory. Supervisory ratings of subordinates' OCBs were collected and matched with 172 subordinates' self-ratings of self-monitoring, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support, and perceptions of job characteristics. One year later, supervisory ratings of subordinates' OCBs were again collected. Support was found for the hypothesis that individuals high in self-monitoring are more likely to perform OCBs which are other-directed. Implications for management and future research are discussed.     

Self-Monitoring and Life Satisfaction of Individuals With Traditional and Nontraditional Sexual Orientations

Our previous work found that high self-monitoring enhanced the job effectiveness of individuals in gender-nontraditional occupations such as men in nursing and women in management. This study tested whether self-monitoring would enhance the life satisfaction of individuals with nontraditional sexual orientations: lesbians and gay men. The revised Self-monitoring Scale and the Life Satisfaction Index were completed by 132 gay and lesbian individuals and by 137 heterosexuals. Moderated regressions indicated self-monitoring was significantly related to life satisfaction of all individuals but there was no interaction with sexual orientation. Significant interactions between self-monitoring, gender, and relationship status indicated self-monitoring Factor A, Ability to Modify Self-Presentation, bolstered the life satisfaction of all women who were not in relationships whereas both Factors A, and Factor B, Sensitivity to the Expressive Behavior of Others, bolstered the life satisfaction of all women in relationships. There were no significant interactions with sexual orientation in the regressions. Regardless of sexual orientation, women had higher life satisfaction scores than men. The failure of the principal hypothesis suggests that the previously identified enhancement effect of self-monitoring may be limited to public occupational roles where social skills of impression management are requisite to effective job performance. The enhancement effect may not extend to private aspects of personal identity.     

Validity of the strategic management simulations to predict real-world productivity

The performance of individual businesses and the economy as a whole hinges on the productivity of human capital, yet measuring productivity at an individual level has proved difficult. The Strategic Management Simulation (SMS) methodology comprises several decision-making assessment tools that have been used for several decades to estimate real-world productivity. Performance on productivity measures using a shorter version of the SMS methodology was gathered from a sample of 111 knowledge workers from major corporations in the U.S. and compared with their income level. In linear models, every percentile increase in SMS performance was associated with a $791–$1,113 increase in income in each of the four domains of decision-making performance provided by the SMS tool. The models had R²’s ranging from 0.65 to 0.75, indicating high levels of correlation between SMS performance and income levels. This study is the first to show linear relationships between SMS performance and other indicators of productivity, indicating that the SMS is a valid predictor of productivity and that SMS scores can be used to predict job satisfaction and performance.     

Effects of expectancy of outcome on the reactivity of self-monitoring

The present study investigated the effects of subjects' outcome expectancy on self-monitoring of a clinically relevant behavior, overeating. In conjunction with self-monitoring of eating habits, subjects received either a positive expectancy of behavior change or no expectancy regarding change. While both self-monitoring groups achieved significantly greater weight loss than controls, subjects in the expectancy group demonstrated significantly greater weight loss than no-expectancy subjects. Possible factors accounting for the disparity in findings between this and previous self-monitoring investigations are discussed.     

Caring for the Caregivers: An Investigation of Factors Related to Well-Being Among Parents Caring for a Child with Smith-Magenis Syndrome

Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS) is a complex disorder characterized by numerous challenges, including intellectual disability, speech delay, decreased pain sensitivity, sleep disturbances, hyperactivity, mood instability, and self-injury. Caregivers must readily adapt to the ever-changing needs of the child. Due to these demands, caregivers may encounter difficulties maintaining their own level of well-being. Thus, a total of 112 primary caregivers (i.e., parents) of individuals diagnosed with SMS responded to online questionnaires to assess demographic and psychosocial factors, such as perceptions of child health vulnerability, benefit finding, sleep behaviors, anxiety and depression symptomatology, and caregiver satisfaction and self-efficacy, which may be related to caregiver well-being. Results show that, among mothers, caregiver well-being was directly related to perceived child health vulnerability, caregiver satisfaction, and benefit finding, and a significant moderating effect was observed for depression/anxiety counseling after beginning the caregiver role on the relationship between anxiety symptomatology and caregiver well-being. Results further suggest that maternal caregivers who report high levels of anxiety but do not seek counseling fair the worst in terms of well-being. Among fathers, lower depression symptoms and greater benefit finding were related to higher levels of caregiver well-being. These data show that many factors play roles in influencing coping and well-being among SMS caregivers. Investigating these variables and relationships may reveal additional resources and interventions to assist primary caregivers.     

高低自我监控者在不同互动情境中的被洞悉错觉

用Snyder的自我监控量表,从大学生中筛选出典型高低自我监控者。要求他们不动声色地喝下1杯醋和4杯水,而后,让观众根据他们的表现去辨别饮料的味道,并让被试预测可能猜中的人数。在实验1中,被试和观众以录像为媒介间接的互相推测;在实验2中,被试和观众现场直接的互相推测。两个实验都包括高低自我监控者各21名。实验结果表明,自我监控水平对被洞悉错觉有明显的影响,在直接和间接两种互动情境中,低自我监控者的被洞悉错觉都比高自我监控者强烈。互动情境对高自我监控者有明显的影响,在间接的互动中,高自我监控者出现了明显的被洞悉错觉;而在直接的互动情境中,低自我监控者的被洞悉错觉依然非常明显,高自我监控者则趋于消失