Use of delayed feedback and reinforcement for reducing inappropriate behaviors with chronically institutionalized mental clients

This study investigated the efficacy of: (a) delayed feedback; (b) delayed feedback and social reinforcement; or (c) delayed feedback, social reinforcement, and tangible reinforcement for reducing the rate of bizarre motoric behaviors for 2 female and 1 male chronically institutionalized mental clients. These treatments were consecutively employed with each subject, utilizing a multiple baseline across subjects experimental design. Results indicated that these subjects were able to retain and understand the feedback on both their problem and alternative behaviors but that reductions in the inappropriate motoric behaviors resulted only when tangible reinforcers were included in the treatment. Implications for further investigations and for the utility and efficiency of delayed feedback and reinforcement with chronically institutionalized adults are discussed.     

Further observational data on the behavioral and social world of institutions for the aged

This study is an extension of previous observational work on the social ecology of dependence and independence in the institutionalized elderly. Observations of everyday, naturally occurring interactions between elderly residents of two different long-term institutions and their social partners were extended such that, aside from the identification of type of behavior, the dyadic form and continuity of each behavior was specified. The following were among the major results: (a) Previously found interaction patterns between elderly residents and their social partners, replicated in both a nursing home and a home for the chronically ill, supported the notion of discrepant social ecologies for dependent versus independent behaviors of residents: (b) specification of each behavioral act as to its dyadic form underscored the fact that the interactions were controlled largely by social partners and not by the elderly residents; (c) coding continuity or discontinuity of behavior suggested that independent behaviors were maintained by chaining; and (d) elderly residents in the home for the chronically ill evinced, as expected, more dependence-related behaviors.     

Shaping data collection congruent with experimental hypotheses

The influence of instructions and feedback from an experimenter on observational recordings of disruptive behavior was evaluated. Four subject-observers recorded four categories of disruptive behavior from videotapes of children in a classroom setting. Two sets of videotapes, labelled "baseline" and "treatment", were matched for rates of disruptive behavior in each category. The observers were told that two target behaviors were expected to decrease and the other two control behaviors were not expected to change during the treatment condition. During observational recording of treatment videotapes, the observers were given positive feedback when they reported decreases in the two target behaviors, and negative feedback when they reported either to change or increases in the two control behaviors. The target behaviors were recorded less frequently by observers, while recordings of control behaviors were unaffected during the treatment phase. These results suggest that contingent feedback to observers should be avoided as a possible source of bias in behavioral recordings.     

A comparison of procedures for eliminating self-injurious behavior of retarded adolescents

An attempt was made to eliminate the self-injurious behaviors of four institutionalized, profoundly retarded adolescents. Some of the behaviors studied were: face-slapping, face-banging, hair-pulling, face-scratching, and finger-biting. Three remediative approaches to self-injurious behavior were compared. Elimination of all social consequences of the self-injurious behavior was not effective with the two subjects with whom it was attempted. The same two subjects were exposed to a procedure involving reinforcement of non-self-injurious behavior which was ineffective under no food deprivation and was effective with one of the two subjects under mild food deprivation. Electric-shock punishment eliminated the self-injurious behaviors of all four subjects with whom it was attempted. The results suggested that punishment was more effective than differential reinforcement of non-self-injurious behavior which, in turn, was more effective than extinction through elimination of social consequences. However, the effects of the punishment were usually specific to the setting in which it was administered. In order to eliminate the self-injurious behaviors of severely retarded children, it is apparently necessary to carry out the treatment in many of the settings in which it occurs.     

THE APPLICATION OF GENERALIZED CORRECT SOCIAL CONTINGENCIES: AN EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAM1

Two aides operating a kindergarten-style program for institutionalized mental retardates were trained, using observer feedback, to apply generalized “correct” social contingencies to 10 defined classes of appropriate and inappropriate child behaviors. A multiple baseline design was used to demonstrate, sequentially, the effects of the training procedure upon the attending behavior of each teacher. After withdrawal of feedback, a posttraining follow-up served to assess the durability of training. For both aides, the effect of training was to increase the proportion of appropriate child behaviors attended to, compared with baseline data, and a follow-up over a number of weeks indicated that the effects of training were apparently durable.     

Human Intelligence After Removal of Cerebral Tissue from the Right Frontal LOBE

Present research explored the effect of conditioning history on the performance of imitative behaviors when a choice was given between a reinforced and a nonreinforced behavior or between two reinforced behaviors. The conditioning history consisted of exposure to a repeatedly demonstrated reinforced behavior (S^Dc). During subsequent choice presentations the S^Dc behavior was paired with a reinforced (S^Da) or nonreinforced (S-delta) alternative behavior. A multiple baseline design was utilized to control for the effect of the length of conditioning history. Six institutionalized retarded children served as subjects. The results indicated that the two subjects with no conditioning history imitated the S-delta behaviors as often as the S^Da behaviors and consistently more often than the S^Dc behaviors. In contrast, three of the four subjects who had the conditioning history imitated the S^Dc behaviors more often than both other behaviors and eventually stopped imitating the S-delta behavior. The fourth subject with a conditioning history did not show this response pattern, but showed a preference for imitating the last of two modeled behaviors. No systematic differences in imitative performance were observed between the two pairs of subjects with a conditioning history as a function of the length of conditioning history. The results suggest that the conditioning history may be largely responsible for the differential imitative performance of reinforced and nonreinforced behaviors.     

Personality,Life Situation,and Life Expectancy

ABSTRACT: This study explores demographic, medical, and psychological variables which appear to be related to survival in institutionalized elderly chronically ill patients. Patients who died within 12 months of an assessment procedure were compared with patients who were still alive over 12 months later. Those who died within the year tended to be younger and less religious, to have a somewhat poorer prognosis, greater cognitive impairment, lower life satisfaction, and higher scores on a suicide potential scale and on an observation checklist of indirectly self-destructive behaviors.     

Effects of learned helplessness training on instrumental heart rate control in humans

In Experiment 1, subjects who received feedback contingent on short interbeat intervals (relative to a baseline period) learned to accelerate their heart rates, but subjects who received noncontingent feedback did not. In Experiment 2, subjects who were exposed to noncontingent aversive noises later showed significant performance deficits on both an instrumental and a cognitive task. Attributional style predicted helplessness deficits on the cognitive but not the instrumental task. Experiment 3 demonstrated that experimentally induced helplessness interferes with biofeedback learning. Attributional style did not predict the occurrence of helplessness deficits in this context. Results are discussed in terms of the nature of biofeedback training and the range of behaviors that learned helplessness training affects.     

Social anxiety and receptivity to interpersonal evaluation

Reactions to interpersonal evaluation were investigated among subjects chronically low and high in social anxiety, or shyness. Both groups of subjects expressed more positive affect after receiving favorable than after receiving unfavorable evaluations, supporting a “self-esteem” prediction. However, support for a “self-consistency” viewpoint was also found. In particular, low social anxiety individuals expressed more negative affect (anger) following negative than following positive feedback, while high social anxiety individuals expressed more unpleasant affect (distress) following positive than following negative interpersonal feedback. Additionally, low social anxiety subjects were alone in derogating the accuracy of negative feedback; high social anxiety individuals were indiscriminate in rating the two types of feedback as equally accurate. The role of interpersonal evaluation in the maintenance of social anxiety was discussed briefly.     

Teaching Interpersonal Skills with Videotape

Three methods of teaching interpersonal skills to chronically ill psychiatric clients were compared. It was hypothesized that: (1) there would be no difference in interpersonal skills gain between subjects who planned and produced a videotape about interpersonal skills (group 1) and similar subjects who attended classes to learn interpersonal skills and viewed the videotape produced by group 1 (group 2); and that (2) there would be no difference in interpersonal skill gain between these two groups and similar subjects who attended classes to learn interpersonal skills but do not view the videotape (group 3). Interpersonal skill gain was measured by both subject self-assessment and rater assessment of interaction and task performance behaviors. Group 1 showed the most improvement on the posttest self-assessment scores and made some interpersonal skill gain demonstrated by subjective observations. However, the sample size was too small to detect a significant difference between any of the three treatment groups. Implications for using videotape to teach interpersonal skills are discussed.     

Hobbits and orcs: Acquisition of a sequential concept

Subjects solved the hobbits-orcs problem repeatedly until they made no errors on two successive solutions. Groups varied in the kind of feedback given after errors. Further support was obtained for Thomas' (this journal) conclusion that subjects organize the sequence of moves in small subsequences, rather than individual moves. Differences between feedback groups suggested that the organization is oriented forward in the problem, and this contrasts with GPS' retroactive organization of this problem. Comparison between feedback groups also leads to the conclusion that subjects learned from positive information indicating which response is correct, rather than by a process of eliminating errors or sampling new strategies after errors. Analysis of acquisition data agreed with the hypothesis of all-or-none learning at individual states, except for one state where the additional complexity was related to an ambiguity about backward moves. The general pattern of results was invariant over a change in the characters of the problem (men and elves) designed to produce a reversal of relationship between the characters concerning who was prevented from outnumbering whom.     

Behavioral engineering: control of posture by informational feedback

The effects of informational feedback on a socially undesirable behavior were studied. The feedback was a mild vibrotactile stimulus and the response was slouching. When subjects slouched, a behavioral engineering apparatus provided vibrotactile stimulation to the shoulder. All subjects slouched less when stimulation was provided. A procedural control revealed that slouching will decrease because of the informational aspect of the stimulus consequence and not because of its aversive properties. When the subjects were instructed to slouch, the effects of feedback were reversed: feedback increased, rather than decreased, slouching. These results indicate that the effect of feedback for a response depends on the subject's motivation to perform that response. It is suggested that informational feedback could be used more widely as a therapeutic procedure to modify human behaviors, but only those behaviors that a patient is strongly motivated to change.     

Effects of reward distribution and performance feedback on competitive responding

To implement competitive contingencies, one must select a distribution of unequal rewards and a schedule of feedback for competitors regarding one another's performance. This study investigated three bases for distributing rewards and two performance feedback conditions. Pairs of college students competed over a series of 2-min contests in which the competitive response was a knob pull. A sum of money was divided using a proportional distribution or one of two fixed reward distributions. In the proportional distribution, a subject's proportion of the sum was his or her proportion of the total number of responses. The two fixed distributions were divisions of 100%/0% or 67%/33%. Also, in every contest either subject could make a response that would end the contest prematurely and give both subjects the same amount—a sum equal to 33% of the competitive total. In the two feedback conditions, cumulative responses by each subject were either shown to both subjects during the contest or were not shown. The proportional distribution was clearly superior to either of the fixed distributions in number of responses produced across contests. The proportional distribution with feedback produced the largest number of competitive responses, and the 100%/0% distribution without feedback produced the smallest number. Differences among distributions typically emerged only during later blocks of contests. Fixed distributions of rewards often produced decelerating rates of responding, with losing competitors ending the contests before they were completed. Response-rate decreases were greatest for pairs in which the 2 subjects differed most in their response rates and proportion of wins. The presence of feedback had a small effect, increasing responding for some pairs in the 100%/0% distribution. Performance patterns were interpreted in terms of the consequences arranged for the individual participants by the reward distributions and differences in performance between competitors.     

Variable-ratio schedules as variable-interval schedules with linear feedback loops.

The mathematical theory of linear systems has been used successfully to describe responding on variable-interval (VI) schedules. In the simplest extension of the theory to the variable-ratio (VR) case, VR schedules are treated as if they were VI schedules with linear feedback loops. The assumption entailed by this approach, namely, that VR and VI-plus-linear-feedback schedules are equivalent, was tested by comparing responding on the two types of schedule. Four human subjects' lever pressing produced monetary reinforcers on five VR schedules, and on five VI schedules with linear feedback loops that reproduced the feedback properties of the VR schedules. Pressing was initiated by instructions in 2 subjects, and was shaped by successive approximation in the other 2. The different methods of response initiation did not have differential effects on behavior. For each of the 4 subjects, the VR and the comparable VI-plus-linear-feedback schedules generated similar average response rates and similar response patterns. The subjects' behavior on both types of schedule was similar to that of avian and rodent species on VR schedules. These results indicate that the assumption entailed by the VI-plus-linear-feedback approach to the VR case is valid and, consequently, that the approach is worth pursuing. The results also confute interresponse-time theories of schedule performance, which require interval and ratio contingencies to produce different response rates.     

Reduction of kindergarten children's disruptive behavior with delayed feedback and delayed contingent access to play

After measuring the amount of disruptive behavior exhibited by nine kindergarten children in a lunchroom, delayed feedback about the disruptive behaviors engaged in was given to each child after he left the lunchroom, but there were no additional differential consequences for any behaviors. This delayed feedback alone had little effect on the rates of disruptive behavior. When the delayed feedback was paired with contingent access to play, the rates of disruptive behaviors of six of the children was substantially reduced. A more elaborate form of feedback, still paired with contingent access to play, was later found to be effective in reducing the rates of disruptive behavior of the other three children. When contingencies and feedback were removed, the rates of disruptive behavior of the three children who required the extended feedback increased, but the rates of disruptive behavior for the other six children did not increase upon termination of contingencies and feedback. However, when disruptive behavior was differentially reinforced, the rates of disruptive behavior of all of the children increased.     

The effects of room management and small-group procedures on the behavior of older adults who have Alzheimer's disease

The effects of room management and small groups procedures on the behavior of five older adults with Alzheimer's Disease was experimentally evaluated by a multielement design with replications across five subjects. Engagement during both room management and small groups was higher than during no treatment baselines. The effects on affective and maladaptive behaviors were of small magnitude. Evidence of individual differences was found both with respect to absolute proportions of time spent in various behaviors and with respect to interactions between individual differences and experimental conditions.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF A PROGRAM FOR TRAINING HIGH AND LOW PREFERENCE PEERS TO MODIFY DISRUPTIVE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR1

Although considerable evidence has accumulated regarding the effectivenes of peers as behavior managers, little attention has been directed toward the analysis of components of training programs. Also, it is not known whether high and low preference peers have different reinforcing effects. In this study, a two-phase peer training program was introduced to five high preference and five low preference peer managers. The Managers were assigned one to each of 10 grade-four elementary pupils with high rates of disruptive behavior. Peer Training I was composed of instructions to monitor and reinforce target subject behavior on a time-sample schedule, to record this reinforcement, and to ignore inappropriate behavior in target subjects. Peer Training II introduced, in addition, backup reinforcement for the monitoring behavior of managers. Measures were taken of target subject behavior, antecedent and consequent attention from managers and other peers, monitoring behavior of managers, teacher behavior, and preference ratings of peer managers by target subjects. Significant improvements in target subject behavior occurred following Peer Training I and further improvements occurred following Peer Training II. These changes were paralleled by decreases in the frequency of antecedent and consequent manager attention to problem behaviors, and improvements in the number and accuracy of monitoring checks. Recorded reductions in teacher attention to individual children and to target subjects were not statistically significant. Posttest preference scores improved significantly over pretest scores for low preference managers, while remaining high for high preference managers.     

Independence training as a method of enhancing self-help skills acquisition of the mentally retarded

This study examined the effectiveness of independence training which involved using social reinforcement, information feedback, modeling and evaluation of self and others in teaching showering behavior to institutionalized mentally retarded adults. A treatment and a non-treatment group of 36 subjects each were used to assess training and maintenance of the target behavior. Analysis of results showed that treatment and no-treatment groups did not differ on baseline scores. However, residents in the treatment group performed significantly better than no-treatment subjects on post-test and three-month follow-up. Staff were of the opinion at post-test that treatment was perceived to be acceptable and nonpunitive.     

The effects of a critical television viewing curriculum on the behavior and viewing skills of emotionally disturbed adolescents in residential treatment

This study investigated the effects of training critical TV viewing skills on the subsequent attitudes and behaviors of emotionally disturbed adolescents in residential treatment. In order to test these effects, 48 institutionalized adolescents ranging from 12–18 in age, served as subjects. They were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Pre- and posttests utilized three measures of television knowledge and attitudes. Eighteen variables comprising three dependent measures were analyzed utilizing a 2 × 2 split-plots design. Training in the technical aspects of viewing proved successful in reducing susceptibility to the negative effects of the medium and provided skills that were effective in dealing with generalized aggressive behavor.     

Aerobic exercise in the psychological treatment of adolescents.

A small group of psychiatrically institutionalized adolescents (16 boys, 11 girls) were assigned to a three-day-per-week running/aerobic exercise program or a regular physical activity class. The complete program continued over 9 weeks, with 11 subjects remaining throughout the program. Dependent measures of body-mass index, timed performance on a one-mile run, resting, exercise, and recovery heart rates, and measures of depression, mood-states, and self-efficacy were assessed pre-, mid-, and post-9-wk. treatment and at a 4-wk. follow-up. Improvements in depression, anxiety, hostility, confused thinking, and fatigue were shown in treated girls, with increases in vigor and self-efficacy for all treated subjects.