Susceptible to Social Influence: Risky “Driving” in Response to Peer Pressure1

In 2 studies, college students were socially influenced to be risky or not in a driving simulation. In both studies, confederate peers posing as passengers used verbal persuasion to affect driving behavior. In Study 1, participants encouraged to drive riskily had more accidents and drove faster than those encouraged to drive slowly or not encouraged at all. In Study 2, participants were influenced normatively or informationally to drive safely or riskily. As in Study 1, influence to drive riskily increased risk taking. Additionally, informational influence to drive safely resulted in the least risk taking. Together, the studies highlight the substantial influence of peers in a risk‐related situation; in real life, peer influence to be risky could contribute to automobile accidents.     

THE CLASS SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF COMPLIANCE TRAINING WITH “DO” AND “DON'T” REQUESTS: ANALOGUE ANALYSIS AND CLASSROOM APPLICATION

Two experiments are reported in which the relationship between compliance with “do” and “don't” requests was examined with developmentally disabled children. In Experiment 1, a multiple baseline design across subjects with counterbalanced treatment conditions was used to evaluate a compliance training program composed of four phases: (a) baseline, during which no consequences were delivered for compliance, (b) reinforcement for compliance with one targeted “do” request, (c) reinforcement for compliance with one targeted “don't” request, and (d) follow-up with reinforcement on a variable ratio schedule for compliance with any “do” or “don't” request. Results of probes conducted before and after training within each condition indicated that generalized compliance occurred only with requests of the same type as the target exemplar (“do” or “don't”). In Experiment 2, these results were replicated in a classroom setting. Following collection of baseline probe data on student compliance, a teacher training program was successfully implemented to increase reinforcement of compliance first with one “do” and subsequently with one “don't” request of a target student. Results of multiple baseline probes across “do” and “don't” requests indicated that the teacher generalized and maintained reinforcement of compliance with other requests of the same type and to other students, with a resulting increase in student compliance with the type of requests reinforced. The impact of treatment on both teacher and student behavior was socially validated via consumer ratings. Implications of these findings with respect to response class formation and compliance training programs are discussed.     

Rewarding elementary schoolchildren for their use of safety belts

This study reports on the application of reward procedures to elementary schoolchildren to increase their use of seat belts en route to two schools. Following strict rules for assessing buckle-up compliance, all passengers in a car had to be safely secured in order for the schoolchildren to receive rewards. Compliant children received paper slips as they arrived at schools, which were redeemable for stickers, bumper stickers, and coloring books. The slips were also used in weekly drawings for pizza dinners. The mean compliance rate for School 1 was 4.3% during baseline, 66.2% for the reward phase across 4 weeks, 60% for return to baseline, 17.2% for Follow-Up 1, and 8.5% for Follow-Up 2. For School 2, the mean percentage was 5.3% at baseline, 69.8% for the reward phase, 68.5% for return to baseline, 40.1% for Follow-Up 1, and 20% for Follow-Up 2. These results indicate that rewarding the schoolchildren increased their own seat-belt use as well as that of their adult drivers and other passengers. Decreases in usage were observed after the rewards were removed.     

Effects of peer social initiations on the behavior of withdrawn preschool children

Social approach to peers was evaluated as an intervention for isolate preschoolers. During baseline, confederate peers made few social approaches to the target subjects. Confederates greatly increased their rate of social approaches during the first intervention, decreased social approaches during a second baseline, and increased social approaches again in a second intervention phase. Increases in confederate social initiations immediately increased the frequency of subjects' positive social behavior. Additionally, five of six subjects showed an increase in their own positive social initiations during intervention periods. The results suggest that: (a) peers may be programmed to increase the positive social behaviors of their isolate classmates, and (b) remediating social deficits requires assessment and intervention specifically tailored to the individual child.     

“Alkie,”“Frat Brother,” and “Jock”: Perceived Types of College Students and Stereotypes About Drinking1

Two studies assessed perceived types of college students and associated stereotypes about drinking. In the first study, 64 university students responded to an open‐ended probe asking them to list types of college students and then rated the amount of drinking done by each of a set of preselected types. In the second study, 236 students responded to the same open‐ended item and directly rated a set of types that had been revised based on Study 1 in terms of drinking and involvement in the academic and sociosexual collegiate subcultures. As hypothesized, consensual responses to the open‐ended probe reflected the college student culture. Also as hypothesized, types of students socially defined in terms of the sociosexual aspects of college (e.g., “fraternity boy”) were rated as likely to drink heavily, whereas types that were seen as being pulled away from college social life, through assumed involvement in academics (e.g., “brain/straight As”), were rated as drinking relatively little. Finally, rated sociosexual involvement was positively correlated, and academic involvement was negatively correlated, with perceived drinking, which supports a central assumption of the framework guiding the research.     

An experimental analysis of peer social initiations on the behavior of withdrawn preschool children: Some training and generalization effects

In this study, positive social initiations by an age-peer was evaluated as an intervention for isolate preschool children in training and generalization sessions. During baseline, the confederate made few social approaches to the target subjects. The confederate greatly increased his rate of positive social initations during the first intervention, decreased social approaches during a second baseline, and increased social approaches again in a second intervention phase. Increases in confederate initiations resulted in an immediate acceleration in the frequency of subjects' positive social behavior during training sessions. Additionally, for two of the three subjects, positive social behaviors were also observed to increase during generalization sessions. The results suggest that (a) peers may be trained successfully to set the occasion for positive social behaviors by withdrawn classmates, (b) increased social responding by withdrawn children in the presence of frequent peer social initiations may also generalize beyond the training setting, and (c) the magnitude of direct and generalization effects appears to be related to the entry-level repertoire of target children.     

“I Am Sorry to Send You SPAM”

A series of studies investigating cultural differences in apology usage in unsolicited email advertising messages (i.e., SPAM) are reported. Study 1 documented that in comparison to American SPAM, a greater percentage of Korean SPAM included apologies. The next five studies (Ns= 516, 3132, 662, 524, 536) tested various explanations for cross‐cultural differences in uses of, and responses to, apologies. Findings indicated that advertising messages containing apologies were not necessarily more effective than advertising messages without apologies. Koreans, however, considered advertising messages with apologies as more credible and normal and exhibited a greater tendency to model other people's apology use than did Americans. Thus, the frequent presence of apologies in Korean unsolicited email advertising is likely to be based on Koreans' modeling behavior (i.e., a greater tendency to follow social norms).     

Effects of computer‐aided instruction on the implementation of the MSWO stimulus preference assessment

This study evaluated a self‐instructional online training package to teach students and staff to conduct a stimulus preference assessment using the multiple‐stimulus without replacement procedure. The training package included a self‐instructional manual and video modeling and was delivered online. Training was evaluated using a multiple‐probe design across a total of six university students and four staff members. Overall, students improved from a mean of 35% correct in baseline to a mean of 94% correct following training, and staff improved from a mean of 23% correct in baseline to a mean of 87% correct following training. During retention and generalization simulated assessments conducted from 7 to 17 days following training, all participants performed considerably above baseline. The online delivery of the self‐instructional manual plus video modeling has tremendous potential for providing an effective method for teaching individuals to conduct stimulus preference assessments without face‐to‐face instruction.     

“No More” leads to “Want More,” but “No Less” leads to “Want Less”: Consumers' counterfactual thinking when faced with quantity restriction discounts

The current research examines the impact of point‐of‐purchase (POP) discounts on consumers' counterfactual thinking (CFT). Study 1 reveals that consumers tend to engage in upward CFT (what might have been better) rather than downward CFT (what might have been worse) in response to POP discounts. Study 2 shows that upward CFT depends on how the discount information is framed. A discount with a lower‐quantity restriction (e.g., “X % off if you buy at least Y items”) leads consumers to counterfactually wish to buy more, but a discount with an upper‐quantity restriction (“X % off – limit Y items per customer”) leads consumers to wish to buy less. Study participants in both conditions report they would buy the same POP‐suggested amount, but for completely opposite reasons. In Study 3, this convergence effect in purchase quantity disappears when the maximum and minimum restrictions are lifted, suggesting that quantity restrictions in POP discounts guide quantity decisions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

VIDEO MODELING TO TRAIN STAFF TO IMPLEMENT DISCRETE‐TRIAL INSTRUCTION

Three new direct‐service staff participated in a program that used a video model to train target skills needed to conduct a discrete‐trial session. Percentage accuracy in completing a discrete‐trial teaching session was evaluated using a multiple baseline design across participants. During baseline, performances ranged from a mean of 12% to 63% accuracy. During video modeling, there was an immediate increase in accuracy to a mean of 98%, 85%, and 94% for each participant. Performance during maintenance and generalization probes remained at high levels. Results suggest that video modeling can be an effective technique to train staff to conduct discrete‐trial sessions.     

A further study of melodic channeling

Subjects listened to repetitive presentations of C major scale patterns and simple two-part contrapuntal specimens, both dichotically and in a stereophonic free sound field. All scalar and melodic patterns were presented so that successive tones alternated from ear to ear: when a component of one scale or melody was routed through one speaker or headphone, the concurrent member of the other scale or melodic pattern was routed through the other speaker or headphone, and vice versa. The stimulus parameters of spectral contour and envelope characteristics, duration, melodic pattern, and loudness were varied, and a testing procedure was designed to minimize any bias in responses which might be produced by learning, immediate memory, or vocal Limitations of subjects. Virtually all responses (95.2% to scalar stimuli, 99.1% to melodic stimuli) indicated that the subjects channeled stimuli by pitch range, and not by ear of input. When spectral contours routed through the separate headphones or speakers were noticeably dissimilar, no subject perceived that this timbral inequality switched from ear to ear: all subjects heard an overall change in tone quality which pervaded both scalar or melodic sequences, and which apparently emanated from both headphones or speakers.     

“You Need to Stop Talking About This!”: Verbal Rumination and the Costs of Social Support

This study examined whether the type of support individuals receive when they are verbally ruminating affects their cognitive rumination (brooding), anxiety, and relationship satisfaction; 233 young adults were randomly assigned to be the subject, 233 others the confederate. The confederate was trained to provide “good support” or “poor support” to the subject who talked about a topic he/she had been verbally ruminating about recently. When individuals verbally ruminated and received poor support, they became more anxious and dissatisfied with the friendship. When individuals received good support, they were more satisfied with their friendship, but their anxiety was not significantly reduced. In addition, verbal rumination was directly associated with more brooding after the conversation, regardless of the type of support provided.     

Separating the “Sinner” from the “Sin”: Religious Orientation and Prejudiced Behavior Toward Sexual Orientation and Promiscuous Sex

This study extends research on the relationship between religious orientation, sexual prejudice, and antipathy toward value‐violating behaviors. If intrinsic religion leads individuals to “love the sinner but hate the sin,” homosexual sexually promiscuous targets should be treated similarly to heterosexual promiscuous targets. One hundred female introductory psychology students were provided the opportunity to help two students. They had no information about the first student. The second student disclosed through a note that she was gay or said nothing about sexual orientation, and further stated that she was sexually promiscuous or celibate. Participants scoring high in intrinsic religiousness helped the disclosing student less when she revealed she was sexually promiscuous, but did not help a gay discloser less than a straight discloser. High intrinsic scores seemed to be related to antipathy toward the value‐violation, but not toward the gay person as an individual.     

Robert H. Shaffer: The Quintessential “Do-Gooder”

Robert H. Shaffer, a pioneering administrator, faculty member, and professional association leader, was interviewed about the early days of AACD (formerly APGA) and his contributions to the student affairs field.     

“You'll Face Discrimination Wherever You Go”: Student Athletes’ Intentions to Enter the Coaching Profession

We conducted 2 studies to examine student athletes’ intentions to enter the coaching profession. In Study 1, participants responded to a questionnaire designed to assess the major constructs from social cognitive career theory. Results indicate that although racial minorities, relative to Whites, expected more positive outcomes with being a coach and had greater intentions to pursue that profession, they also anticipated more barriers associated with coaching. To clarify this relationship, we conducted a focus group interview (Study 2) with 6 male athletes of color. Participants indicated that prejudice and discrimination were expected across their potential vocational choices, not just coaching. Thus, given the many positives associated with coaching, they preferred to encounter those barriers in the coaching context.     

The “Flash” System: A Field Study of Altruism1

This study evaluated the effectiveness of an experimental automated highway-help system for stranded motorists (the Flash system). Direct and indirect helping behavior rates as a function of the race and sex of supposedly stranded drivers on the Flash-equipped highway were compared to helping rates on a comparable, non-Flash-equipped highway. The results indicated that the automated system produced (a) higher overall helping rates and (b) higher helping rates for white persons, with type of help (direct or indirect) interacting with confederate sex.     

Teaching self-protection to young children

Self-protective behaviors were taught to three preschool children in order to prevent the opportunity for abduction. An analogue measure of self-protection was developed in which confederate adults approached and verbally attempted to lure each child from the setting, before, during, and after training. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used. During baseline, all the children displayed susceptibility to the lures. Training procedures included modeling, behavior rehearsal, and social reinforcement. Within 1 week after training began, all children displayed appropriate responses to all of the lures both in the training setting and in the community.     

REDUCING SEVERE DIURNAL BRUXISM IN TWO PROFOUNDLY RETARDED FEMALES

Several diurnal audible teeth grinding (bruxism) was found to affect 21.5% of a profoundly retarded population. However, no previous research has treated bruxism in retarded individuals. In the current study a multiple baseline across subjects design was used to assess the effectiveness of contingent “icing,” brief contingent tactile applications of ice, as a treatment for bruxism. Three 15-minute treatment periods and two 5-minute generalization periods were conducted 5 days per week. One resident displayed a 95% reduction in the percentage of intervals during which bruxism occurred during treatment periods and a 67 % reduction during generalization periods. The other resident displayed a 94% reduction in the percentage of intervals during which bruxism occurred during treatment periods and a 53% reduction during generalization periods.     

Social influences on reality-monitoring decisions

A modified Asch (1951) conformity paradigm was used to study the impact of social influence on reality-monitoring decisions about new items. Subjects studied pictures of some objects and imagined others. In a later test phase, they judged whether items had been perceived in the study phase, had been imagined, or were new. Critically, for some items, the subjects were informed of a confederate's response before rendering a judgment. Although the confederate was always correct when they responded to old items, for new items, the confederate responded perceived, imagined, or new, or did not respond (baseline). In two experiments, we show that memory for new items was influenced by an erroneous response of the confederate. Social conformity was reduced by undermining the credibility of the confederate (Experiments 1A and 1B), and the confederate's influence was evident even after there was only a 20-min delay between study and test (Experiment 2), when the subjects were 87% accurate on new baseline items. These experiments reveal the power of social influence on reality-monitoring accuracy and confidence.