内群体偏爱或黑羊效应?经济博弈中公平规范执行的群体偏见

公平规范执行代指人们自愿损耗利益来惩罚违反公平原则行为的意愿和行为, 被视为人类社会的重要特征及维持合作行为的关键因素。群体认同是指个体对其所属群体身份的知觉及其所付诸于该群体身份上的价值与情绪, 直接影响着群际互动中人们的公平规范执行行为。基于多种资产分配任务, 国内外学者发现公平规范执行中群体偏见存在两种矛盾的表现形式：人们有时更愿意接受内群体成员的不公提议, 表现为内群体偏爱现象(the in-group favoritism, IGF), 有时又更愿意拒绝内群体成员的不公提议, 表现出黑羊效应(the black sheep effect, BSE)。当前, 纯粹偏好理论和规范聚焦理论常被用来解释上述两种相悖的现象。未来研究应侧重从多种视角揭示公平规范执行偏见的边界条件, 比较多种线索操纵所致偏见的差异性, 促进两种理论的融合与补充, 并增强其潜在神经机制的探索。     

Parent-child communication,perceived sanctions against drug use,and youth drug involvement

To explore the relationship of parent-child communication to youth drug involvement, we analyzed secondary data from substance-abuse surveys given to 82,918 7th-12th graders in the U.S. It was found that: (a) parents are most often identified as the individuals who have talked to a child about drugs; (b) youth consider parents to be credible sources of information about drugs; (c) as perceived family sanctions go up, drug involvement goes down; (d) youth with the highest levels of drug involvement are the group most likely both to have had no one talk to them and to have had the largest number of people talk to them about drugs; and (e) perceived family sanctions increase dramatically for highly drug-involved youth once they have been talked to by one person.     

We'll never get past the glass ceiling! Meta‐stereotyping,world‐views and perceived relative group‐worth

This article examines the implications of perceived negativity from members of a dominant outgroup on the world views and perceived relative group worth of members of disadvantaged groups. We hypothesized that concerns about the negative opinions a dominant outgroup is perceived to hold of the ingroup (i.e., meta‐stereotypes) would undermine group members' views about societal fairness. We expected this trend to be mediated by recall of previous personal experiences of discrimination. We further hypothesized that members' views about societal fairness would predict their perception of the ingroup's worth relative to the outgroup – such that undermined views about societal fairness would be associated with lower perceived ingroup worth relative to the outgroup. Taken jointly, results from two studies using two real intergroup contexts support these hypotheses and are discussed in terms of their implications for the social mobility of members of disadvantaged groups.     

UNDERSTANDING STRESS IN FEMALE AND MALE LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

Gender issues in the male-dominated profession of law enforcement have not been closely examined. In the current study, 52 female officers of a state highway patrol agency were matched with 52 male officers. Participants completed a confidential assessment packet to examine their satisfaction with work, perceived stress, physical symptoms, daily hassles, and aspects of burnout. Results suggest that male officers experience a greater degree of perceived stress and emotional exhaustion and greater dissatisfaction with their work than do women. In female officers, perceived stress was related to physical symptoms, dissatisfaction with the nature of the work, dissatisfaction with co-workers, and feelings of emotional exhaustion. In male officers, perceived stress was related to physical symptoms, dissatisfaction with co-workers, dissatisfaction with work, and emotional exhaustion. Gender differences in terms of officers'expectations and beliefs about the profession as well as the possible differential effects of marital status on occupational stress are discussed.     

The Dynamics of Internalised and Extrinsic Motivation in the Ethical Decision-Making of Small Business Owners

We investigate the ethical behaviour of small business owners by focusing on individuals' motivations to comply with tax obligations. In a study of 330 small business owners, we assess the role of internalised motivation to pay taxes versus extrinsic motivation in driving tax compliance. First, we find that internalised and extrinsic motivation have distinct predictors. Internalised motivation is related to strong personal moral norms to comply and a sense that the fiscal system is fair. Extrinsic motivation is related to perceptions that penalties are severe, that checks are likely, and is associated with a perceived lack of tax knowledge. Second, we find that, when considered together, internalised motivation but not extrinsic motivation predicts self-reported tax compliance. Third, we test the undermining hypothesis by which the presence of extrinsic motivation may crowd out the positive effect of internalised motivation. We find evidence of a motivation crowding effect only at very high levels of extrinsic motivation. We discuss avenues for further integration of motivation theory in research on tax compliance behaviour, and more generally the study of regulatory compliance and ethical behaviour in business settings.     

Beliefs in a Just World and Reactions to Personal Deprivation

ABSTRACT We hypothesized that strong believers in a just world would be motivated to perceive personal deprivation as fair and to report little resentment, compared to weak believers in a just world In two experiments, subjects performed a computer task to earn points toward a goal that had desirable consequences In the first study, some subjects chose their computer task, whereas other subjects were randomly assigned to a task In the second study, some subjects decided not to practice the task before the test trial, whereas other subjects learned after the test trial that the experimenter had forgotten to give them the opportunity to practice All subjects received bogus feedback indicating that they did not earn any points The predicted relation between beliefs in a just world and perceived fairness was obtained in both experiments, especially within the choice condition of Experiments and the experimenter error condition of Experiments The results show that beliefs in a just world have implications not only for perceptions of others, but also for self-perception     

Perceived Distributive Fairness of European Transfer Payments and EU‐Taxes in Austria,the Czech Republic,and the United Kingdom

The present research compared a distributive fairness model of EU transfer payments (Hartner, Rechberger, Kirchler, & Wenzel, 2011) between three countries: Austria, the Czech Republic, and the UK. The model postulates an interplay between EU‐tax compliance, distributive fairness, outcome favorability as well as national and European identification. Results across countries showed that EU‐tax compliance was positively related to distributive justice, which was in turn related to outcome favorability and identification. National identifiers perceived EU membership as unfavorable in financial and socio‐political terms, and thus considered the transfer payments as less fair. Dual identifiers perceived the socio‐political outcomes as more favorable, and thus evaluated the transfer payments as fairer. Although the basic structure of the model was valid across all three countries, two country‐specific results were found. First, in the UK individual tax paying behavior was influenced by outcome favorability, whereas in Austria and the Czech Republic this relationship was mediated via distributive fairness. Second, in the Austrian sample, the differentiation between patriots and nationalists proved fruitful since nationalists considered the EU transfer payments as unfair, unlike patriots. In the UK and the Czech Republic the distinction between nationalists and patriots did not add any further information.     

Determinants of tax evasion and compliance

The problem of tax evasion and subsequent revenue loss is an important one for our nation. Noncompliance with tax laws causes multibillion dollar annual losses for the U.S. treasury. An investigation of psychological variables is suggested as the most promising route to increase tax compliance. Hence, a review of the legal, economic, sociological, and psychological literature concerning the motivation and causes of noncompliance with tax laws is presented. Theoretical models and empirical studies addressing the issue of tax evasion are reviewed. An individual's feelings of equity and sense of norm commitment may be the crucial factors in the decision to comply or evade legally mandated taxes, superseding the notion of sanctions as the most effective deterrent. A legal reasoning model is one suggested alternative in the search for a causal explanation of noncompliance.     

Beliefs about personality change and continuity

Lay conceptions of personality change and continuity were examined in a sample of 112 undergraduates. Participants rated their personal change over 5 years (past or future), the change they perceived to be normative over 10-year age spans between 15 and 65, their beliefs about whether personality is fixed or malleable (“lay theories”) and their beliefs about the causes of personality change and continuity. Beliefs about normative personality change generally corresponded to research evidence on adult trajectories of the Big Five factors, with some age bias, whereas recalled and anticipated personal change tended to be more positive than these norms. Participants tended to endorse environmental causes more for personality change than for continuity. Lay theories were not consistently associated with these causal beliefs, or with beliefs about personal and normative change.     

Needy or Greedy? The Social Psychology of Individuals Who Fraudulently Claim Unemployment Benefits1

This study explored the relationships between diverse social psychological and economic variables and self-reported and officially documented unemployment benefit fraud. Two groups receiving unemployment benefit were studied; a fraudulent group of 45 individuals and an honest group of 51 individuals. Interview measures of financial strain, social norms, opportunity for fraud, social controls, personal strain, personal orientation, perceived risk of punishment, and intolerance of fraud were obtained. The results of univariate and regression analyses revealed that although financial strain and social norms did not differ between the two groups, the fraudulent group had more opportunity, were less well educated, were more alienated and inclined to take risks, and had more positive attitudes toward a variety of kinds of fraud.     

The Formation of Attitudes Toward New Immigrant Groups1

People often receive information about new immigrant groups prior to any direct contact with group members. However, it is not clear how this information shapes attitudes toward the groups. To explore this issue, 204 subjects were told about an unknown immigrant group that was presented as high or low in personal relevance. Subjects were then given positive or negative consensus information about the emotions that group members elicit from others, group members' personality traits, and group members' values. As expected, results indicated that the presentation of positive information about emotional reactions, personality traits, and values caused attitudes to be more favorable than did the presentation of negative information. Importantly, however, the combined impact of the emotion and personality trait information depended on whether the group was perceived to be of high or low personal relevance. Specifically, when the information about emotions and personality traits was similarly valanced (i.e., both were positive or both were negative), attitudes toward the group tended to be less favorable in the high personal relevance condition than in the low personal relevance condition. In contrast, when mixed information was presented (i.e., positive emotions and negative personality traits or negative emotions and positive personality traits), attitudes tended to be more favorable in the high personal relevance condition. In addition, attitudes, once formed, predicted further perceptions of the group and behavioral intentions toward group members. The implications of the findings for the reduction of prejudice toward new immigrant groups are discussed.     

Social disadvantage and the self-regulatory function of justice beliefs

Five studies support the hypothesis that beliefs in societal fairness offer a self-regulatory benefit for members of socially disadvantaged groups. Specifically, members of disadvantaged groups are more likely than members of advantaged groups to calibrate their pursuit of long-term goals to their beliefs about societal fairness. In Study 1, low socioeconomic status (SES) undergraduate students who believed more strongly in societal fairness showed greater intentions to persist in the face of poor performance on a midterm examination. In Study 2, low SES participants who believed more strongly in fairness reported more willingness to invest time and effort to achieve desirable career outcomes. In Study 3, ethnic minority participants exposed to a manipulation suggesting that fairness conditions in their country were improving reported more willingness to invest resources in pursuit of long-term goals, relative to ethnic minority participants in a control condition. Study 4 replicated Study 3 using an implicit priming procedure, demonstrating that perceptions of the personal relevance of societal fairness mediate these effects. Across these 4 studies, no link between fairness beliefs and self-regulation emerged for members of advantaged (high SES, ethnic majority) groups. Study 5 contributed evidence from the World Values Survey and a representative sample (Inglehart, Basa?ez, Diez-Medrano, Halman, & Luijkx, 2004). Respondents reported more motivation to work hard to the extent that they believed that rewards were distributed fairly; this effect emerged more strongly for members of lower SES groups than for members of higher SES groups, as indicated by both self-identified social class and ethnicity.     

Individual attitudes and perceived social norms: Reports on HIV/AIDS‐related stigma among service providers in China

This study examined HIV/AIDS‐related stigma among Chinese service providers by comparing their personal attitudes toward people living with HIV/AIDS with their perception of social norms related to people living with HIV/AIDS. We randomly selected three provincial hospitals, four city/prefecture hospitals, 10 county hospitals, 18 township health clinics, and 54 village clinics from Yunnan, China. Doctors and nurses were randomly sampled proportionally to the doctor–nurse ratio of each hospital or clinic. Lab technicians were over‐sampled in order to include an adequate representation in the analysis. A total of 1,101 service providers participated in a voluntary, anonymous survey where demographic characteristics, individual attitude and perceived social norms toward people living with HIV/AIDS, discrimination intent at work, general prejudicial attitude and knowledge on HIV/AIDS were measured. A majority of the sample demonstrated a similarity between their personal views and what they thought most people in society believe. Multiple logistic regressions revealed that participants who were younger or reported personal contact with people living with HIV/AIDS were significantly more likely to report personal attitudes toward the population that were more liberal than their perceived social norms. Holding a more liberal personal attitude toward people living with HIV/AIDS than perceived social norms was significantly and negatively related to the level of discrimination intent at work, perceived discrimination at interpersonal level and the level of general prejudicial attitude toward people living with HIV/AIDS. Results underscored the importance of understanding social norms and personal attitudes in studying HIV‐related stigma and called for the incorporation of existing human capital into future HIV stigma reduction programs.     

社会互动视角下人际公平形成的脑机制

最后通牒博弈任务被广泛用以探究公平行为, 以往研究大多集中于对博弈中某一方决策行为和神经机制的探讨, 但是人际公平可能是互动双方重复博弈的结果。因此只考察单个大脑活动, 并不足以揭示由互动双方共同完成的社会认知活动的脑机制。因此, 本研究结合修改版的最后通牒博弈任务和基于fNIRS的超扫描技术, 从群体脑水平上考察人际公平形成的脑机制。行为结果显示, 相比无惩罚条件, 惩罚下提议者的分配金额更高, 且惩罚力度越强, 分配越趋近公平分配。fNIRS的结果显示, 惩罚下右侧背外侧前额叶皮层、顶下小叶和颞-顶联合区的脑间活动同步性显著强于无惩罚条件, 而且两条件的分配金额差异越大, 右侧顶下小叶的脑间活动同步性差异也越大。综上, 脑间活动同步性可以作为惩罚下人际公平形成的客观脑指标, 研究为探讨人际公平的内在机制提供了新的视角。     

Deviance and a generalized disposition toward internality: An attributional approach

Two studies were carried out to test the hypothesis, derived from attribution theory, that adolescents might acquire an identity and mediating beliefs about reality (internal locus of control) by deviating from norms when they perceived adults to be powerful. In line with this expectation, the major study found that students rated by teachers as "deviant," but not those rated as "conformant," showed greater internality in beliefs about man (control ideology), p = .024, under conditions of high power. Despite the following limitations or exceptions, attribution theory seemed to best explain the predicted effect: (1) the effect for beliefs about control was nonsignificantly weaker for females then males, perhaps because of different meanings of deviance for males and females and female socialization for conformity rather than independence; (2) in the major study the effect was absent for questions dealing with respondents' personal feelings of control ("self-attributions"); and (3) in both studies there was a tendency for deviant females to show more personal externality (relative to conformers) when perceived power was high.     

Family history and gender roles: Critical factors in practitioners' views of family interactions

This study examined practitioners' perceptions of family and individual family member functioning in relationship to family roles, gender of family leadership, beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment, and paternal division of responsibility in practitioner family of origin. Practicing counselors and mental health therapists rated two videotaped family interviews, one demonstrating a matriarchal style of family interaction and the second a patriarchal style. Findings indicated that practitioners were vulnerable to view a patriarchal style of family interaction as more healthy in comparison to a matriarchal style and that their perceptions of family members were related to personal beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment and to personal family history. These and other findings suggest that practitioners may be prone to errant perceptions and misguided intervention related to personal history and attitudes.     

The role of legal and moral norms to regulate the behavior of texting while driving

Despite a nationwide lawful effort to regulate texting-while-driving behavior, little change has been reported. This study assessed the effect of current legal enforcement on attitudinal and behavioral responses toward texting while driving in conjunction with potential influences of two types of perceived norms—legal and moral. An online survey was conducted with 313 college students recruited from three states where the history of a banning law of texting while driving varied (more than 3 years, less than 1 year, and none). The students self-reported perceived legal norm, perceived moral norm, perceived risk of texting while driving, frequency of texting while driving, attitude toward texting while driving, and intention of texting while driving. General linear model analyses revealed that the mere presence of legal enforcement showed a negative relationship with frequency of behavior only for the state with the banning law in effect more than 3 years. While the perceived legal norm showed inconsistent relationships with outcome variables, the perceived moral norm appeared most promising to discourage texting while driving among young drivers. A banning law for texting-while-driving behavior not only backfired on the actual behavior in a short-term effect, but also required a long-term exposure of the law to change the actual behavior among college students. On the other hand, cultivation of a moral norm to regulate the behavior of texting while driving is particularly encouraged in that the stable nature of this psychological variable can play a role to suppress possible reactance evoked by an external force. Policy makers are encouraged to harness their approach to regulate young drivers’ texting while driving with the strategy that appeals to the drivers’ moral beliefs rather than simply forcing them to comply with the law.