REDUCING RAPID EATING IN ADULTS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

Rapid eating is a frequent problem among individuals with developmental disabilities that can pose a threat to health. This study sought to reduce the rate of eating behaviors in two adults diagnosed with moderate intellectual disability. Assessment of eating rate took place in the participants' group homes during lunch or dinner meals. Procedures included the use of vibrating pagers with and without verbal prompts to prompt eating and prevent rapid eating behaviors. Results demonstrate a clear reduction in rate of eating when using vibrating pagers and verbal prompts for both participants. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Children's Judgments of Certainty and Uncertainty on a Problem Where the Possible Solutions Differ in Likelihood

In this study the author examined why children and adults think they need to eat. Preschoolers through adults were provided with physiological, social, psychological, and routine causes for eating breakfast, lunch, snack, and dinner, and were asked to either agree or disagree with the causal responses provided. A 4 Reason × 4 Meal repeated measures analysis of variance revealed significant main effects for meals and reasons, as well as significant Meal × Reason and Meal × Reason × Grade interactions. The effect sizes ranged from 0.1 to 0.7. Across all age groups, participants acknowledged physiological needs and desires (fulfilling hunger and needs to stay healthy) and routine (e.g., it is dinner time) as the primary causes for eating breakfast, lunch, and dinner. However, for snack physiological needs were the primary reason. Second-grade students onward spontaneously produced biological justifications such as the need for energy and nutrition as important reasons for food consumption. These results lend support to the developmental model that children's and adults’ understanding of eating changes in middle childhood.     

Why do we eat? Children's and adults' understanding of why we eat different meals

In this study the author examined why children and adults think they need to eat. Preschoolers through adults were provided with physiological, social, psychological, and routine causes for eating breakfast, lunch, snack, and dinner, and were asked to either agree or disagree with the causal responses provided. A 4 Reason x 4 Meal repeated measures analysis of variance revealed significant main effects for meals and reasons, as well as significant Meal x Reason and Meal x Reason x Grade interactions. The effect sizes ranged from 0.1 to 0.7. Across all age groups, participants acknowledged physiological needs and desires (fulfilling hunger and needs to stay healthy) and routine (e.g., it is dinner time) as the primary causes for eating breakfast, lunch, and dinner. However, for snack physiological needs were the primary reason. Second-grade students onward spontaneously produced biological justifications such as the need for energy and nutrition as important reasons for food consumption. These results lend support to the developmental model that children's and adults' understanding of eating changes in middle childhood.     

Body perception and meal type across age and gender on a Mediterranean island (Sardinia)

Our aim was to describe the differences in consumption of types of meal (complete/incomplete) eaten at lunch and dinner by gender in people of different age groups (children, young adults and seniors). In particular, we wanted to investigate the differences in choice of meal based on perceived weight. The study involved 516 participants, of which 156 were children (8-12y), 187 were young adults (19-30y) and 173 were elderly (65-90y). A cross-sectional analysis was carried out into the choice of meal type based on the different age groups and genders, on the three Body Mass Index categories (under, normal, overweight), on the three levels of self-perception (slim, normal and heavy) and on the degrees of perception of one’s body weight (underestimation, accurate estimation, overestimation). The food eaten was grouped into three types of daily meal: (a) incomplete, (b) complete lunch or dinner, (c) always complete. Differences emerged in the type of meal eaten according to age, gender and perceived weight. The results show gender differences in associations with meal type according to the way in which body mass is measured or perceived. The choice of complete/incomplete meal type changes according to whether real weight or perceived weight is considered.     

INCREASING DISTANCE AND INDEPENDENCE OF AMBULATION IN ELDERLY NURSING HOME RESIDENTS

We tested the effectiveness of a prompt-and-praise procedure for increasing walking distance and independence in eight nursing home residents. Walking distance and method of ambulation were observed just prior to mealtimes; in addition, mobility and social interaction were time-sampled in the living areas throughout the day. Treatment was lagged in a multiple baseline design across lunch and dinner meals within subjects, and across subjects within each of three units. In the mealtime setting, two subjects began walking the maximum scored distance during baseline; the other six subjects showed a marked increase in walking beginning with the first meal in which the intervention was applied. Six of the eight subjects also progressed to more independent means of ambulation. Generalization of walking to the second meal was observed in all four of the subjects in whom this could be assessed. Generalization across subjects was not observed nor was generalization to the living areas. Staff successfully implemented the procedures in the mealtime settings and the effects were maintained at the 4-month follow-up.     

Behavioural conversion in a compliance paradigm: A replication and a refinement

While a compliance strategy induced almost all subjects to agree to forego first a lunch and then a dinner and the following breakfast, simply observing an accomplice break his commitment to forego lunch was enough to produce a significant reduction in subjects' commitment to forego two meals, even though the effect was not immediate. This pattern of influence, similar to a ‘behavioural conversion’, appeared if the accomplice had first agreed to the initial request and only later refused to continue, but not if he refused to make the commitment at the outset.     

Choose your lunch companion wisely: the relationships between lunch break companionship,psychological detachment,and daily vigour

This diary study examines psychological detachment, companionship, and content of conversation during lunch break as predictors of daily vigour after lunch break and at the end of the working day. Drawing on resource regulation theory and the effort recovery model (ERM), we hypothesize that companionship of the supervisor during lunch break is negatively and companionship of colleagues positively related to employee’s daily vigour. The companionship of both, supervisors and colleagues, as well as work-related conversations are hypothesized to decrease psychological detachment during lunch breaks. In total, 71 persons in administrative jobs completed daily surveys over one working week. Results of hierarchical linear modelling showed that psychological detachment is positively related to vigour after lunch break, but unrelated to vigour at the end of the working day. Lunch breaks with the supervisor predicted a lower level of vigour at the end of the working day, but a higher level of vigour after lunch break. Lunch breaks with colleagues were unrelated to vigour after lunch break, but associated with higher vigour at the end of a working day. The companionship of both—colleagues and supervisors—as well as work-related conversation decreased psychological detachment during lunch break.     

AN ECOBEHAVIORAL EXAMINATION OF A SIMPLE STRATEGY FOR INCREASING MEALTIME LANGUAGE IN RESIDENTIAL FACILITIES

Typically in large residential facilities for retarded persons, meals are served in an institutional style that does not appear to encourage appropriate peer interactions. An ecological program alternative is serving meals in a family style. The present study was designed to examine both the feasibility of serving family style meals and the effects of family style meal service on mealtime language. Five retarded young adult male residents, who had some conversational skills and appropriate table manners, participated in this study. The experimental design involved a multiple baseline analysis across meals (dinner, lunch, and breakfast). Observers coded the youths' mealtime verbalizations according to the type, content, and direction of the verbalizations and they recorded the length of the meals. The analysis of the verbalization data indicated that during family style meals the participants spoke substantially more often than during institutional style meals. Increases in peer-directed conversation about the meals primarily accounted for the verbalization changes. Family style serving also resulted in the youths spending more time with their meals. In addition, social validation measures suggested that the family style procedures were preferred by the consumers (participants, staff, and concerned community members).     

ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS AND REINFORCEMENT EFFECTS

Positive reinforcement procedures have had a major impact on educational programs for the developmentally disabled; nevertheless, variation in reinforcer effectiveness both within and across individuals is a common phenomenon. This study examined one class of variables—establishing operations—that might influence the effectiveness of reinforcers. Five developmentally disabled adult males participated. Responding on one of two motor tasks—switch closure or block placement—was assessed during baseline, satiation, and deprivation conditions with respect to three classes of consequences: small food items, music, and social praise. Deprivation and satiation conditions were constructed so as not to alter significantly the normal course of events in a subject's day. For example, food deprivation entailed scheduling sessions just prior to a subject's regular lunch, and social deprivation involved limiting a subject's access to social interaction for 15 minutes, during which time the subject had access to an assortment of other activities. Results showed that each stimulus class functioned as reinforcement with different degrees of effectiveness during satiation versus deprivation conditions. These results are discussed in light of previous research on enhancement of reinforcer efficacy as well as the assessment and identification of functional reinforcers, and implications are presented for future research and client habilitation.     

Effects of White Noise on Off-Task Behavior and Sleep for Elementary-Age Students with ADHD

Abstract

Children with ADHD were administered 75?dB of continuous white noise during independent seat work in the classroom and during bedtime in their homes. Compared to baseline all three students exhibited decreases in off-task behavior. Off-task behavior returned to original baseline levels when white noise was removed and decreased again when reintroduced in classrooms. White noise also decreased bedtime sleep latency and spontaneous night wakings at home. Both sleep latencies and night wakings increased during return-to-baseline conditions. Surprisingly, when white noise was reintroduced only in the classrooms sleep improved a second time. White noise in classrooms with or without simultaneous treatment during sleep at night resulted in lower levels of off-task classroom behavior as well as less disruptive sleep. Results were independent of whether children were on ADHD medication. Children, teachers, and parents all rated white noise favorably.     

Early puberty in African-American girls: nutrition past and present

This study focused on nutrition and the changes in food intake over time to explain the onset of early pubertal signs in African-American girls. The daily nutritional intake of two diametrically opposite generations of African-American females was compared. The first group included 20 girls between the ages of 5 and 7 and the second group included 28 women between the ages of 70 and 85. The older African-American women were asked to remember the meals they had when they were young. Results revealed significant differences in terms of both quantity and quality of food consumed. Specifically, the women reported eating two meals a day when they were young while the girls reported eating at least three meals. Also, for breakfast, the girls consumed significantly more milk and fruits than did the women. For lunch, the girls consumed significantly more bread and grains, vegetables, meat, and milk than did the women. For dinner, the women consumed significantly more bread and grains. Thus, significant differences between the nutrition of African-American girls about 60 to 70 years ago and those of today were revealed. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Neuronal effects of auditory distraction on visual attention

Selective attention in the presence of distraction is a key aspect of healthy cognition. The underlying neurobiological processes, have not, however, been functionally well characterized. In the present study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to determine how ecologically relevant distracting noise affects cortical activity in 27 healthy adults during two versions of the visual Sustained Attention To Response Task (SART) that differ in difficulty (and thus attentional load). A significant condition (noise or silence) by task (easy or difficult) interaction was observed in several areas, including dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), fusiform gyrus (FG), posterior cingulate (PCC), and pre-supplementary motor area (PreSMA). Post hoc analyses of interaction effects revealed deactivation of DLPFC, PCC, and PreSMA during distracting noise under conditions of low attentional load, and activation of FG and PCC during distracting noise under conditions of high attentional load. These results suggest that distracting noise may help alert subjects to task goals and reduce demands on cortical resources during tasks of low difficulty and attentional load. Under conditions of higher load, however, additional cognitive resources may be required in the presence of noise.     

Noise effects on rehearsal rate in short term serial order memory

Three experiments are reported which were designed to test the hypothesis that the rate of rehearsal during noise is slower than that under quiet conditions. The first experiment measured directly the rate of articulation while subjects either read or rehearsed a set of five consonants. It was shown that while the rate of articulation when reading aloud did not differ under the two noise levels [65 dB(C) and 85 dB(C)], rate of articulation during overt rehearsal in loud noise was significantly slower than under quiet conditions. In Experiment II a similar effect was demonstrated where words were required to be read or rehearsed; here it was shown that the greatest impairment due to noise was on the rate of rehearsal of words of long spoken length.

The third experiment showed that loud noise impaired recall performance more markedly for a set of words of long spoken length presented early on in the sequence than for a set of shorter words, even though both sets were equal in the number of syllables and phonemes they contained.

It was concluded that in verbal memory tasks where rote rehearsal of the to-be-remembered material is the predominant strategy for enhancing trace duration, noise may affect memory performance by slowing down the rehearsal rate.     

Helplessness,stress level,and the coronary-prone behavior pattern

Two experiments were conducted to examine the relationship between stress level and learned helplessness in human subjects. Experiment I subjected subjects to loud or moderate noise in order to induce differential stress. Half of the subjects within each stress group were unable to escape from a series of noise bursts, whereas the other half could terminate each burst by manipulating appropriate switches. After the pretreatment series, the same noise was again delivered to subjects, all of whom could now escape or avoid noise by making an appropriate response on a shuttle box. Inescapable (helplessness) pretreatment interfered with escape learning in the second (test) phase of the study under both levels of stress. Experiment II was a partial replication of the first study using only loud noise. The interference effect during test trials was greater than in the first study. In addition to these findings, measures of a coronary-prone behavior pattern were related to differential susceptibility to the interference effect under both high stress and moderate stress conditions. These results were interpreted in terms of differing perceptions of threat imposed by lack of environmental control.     

Motivational influences on performance maintained by food reinforcement

In Study 1, we examined the independent effects of reinforcer consumption during sessions and meal consumption prior to sessions on performance maintained by food reinforcement. Nine individuals with developmental disabilities participated. On alternate days, a preferred edible item was delivered during (a) seven sessions conducted before lunch (repeated-reinforcement condition) versus (b) one session each conducted before and after lunch (pre- and postmeal conditions). Results for 7 of 9 participants showed decreased response rates across sessions in the repeated-reinforcement condition; results for 3 of 9 participants showed decreased rates during postmeal relative to premeal conditions. Two participants who did not show a decrement in responding during either comparison participated in Study 2, in which reinforcer consumption during sessions, combined with meal consumption prior to sessions, also had no effect on their performance. In Study 3, we determined whether (a) choice of reinforcers, (b) increased break time between sessions, (c) varied reinforcers, or (d) intermittent reinforcement schedules mitigated the satiation effects observed for the 7 participants in Study 1. Presession choice of reinforcers resulted in maintained performance for 2 of 6 participants exposed to this condition. Varied reinforcement resulted in maintained performance for only 1 of 5 participants exposed to this condition. Neither the increased break between sessions nor the intermittent reinforcement schedule was effective in maintaining performance for the participants who were exposed to these conditions.     

Healthy Eating Index-C is compromised among adolescents with body weight concerns, weight loss dieting, and meal skipping

The objective was to describe weight concerns, dieting, and meal skipping of adolescents and to determine associations with the Healthy Eating Index-C (HEI-C). Data, that were collected using the Food Behaviour Questionnaire, revealed that participants (male=810, female=1016) in grades 9/10 reported weight concerns (n=518), dieting (n=364), and skipping breakfast (n=498), lunch (n=252), and/or dinner (n=129). Of those dieting or weight concerned (n=602), 61% were healthy weight and of those not dieting or weight concerned (n=1224), 13% were overweight/obese. The ordinal logistic regression analysis revealed that HEI-C was likely to be rated lower among those weight concerned and dieting (p<.001), and among those that skipped the breakfast meal (p<.001). The current study identified inappropriate weight concerns and dieting that compromised diet quality and has implications for future intervention and policy development.     

Affect and Performance on Cognitive Task as a Function of Crowding and Noise1

Sixty undergraduate males participated in an experiment with a 2 × 3 factorial design involving two levels of density and three levels of noise to demonstrate effects of the independent variables (density, noise) on cognitive task performance and affect. As predicted, it was found that crowding and noise lead to deterioration of subject's performance on cognitively complex tasks but not on simple (cognitive) task. Also, density and noise generated a negative feeling in the subjects. Significant two-way interaction for complex task, showed variation in performance of Ss of high and low density under low and high noise conditions. In addition, crowded-condition subjects reported more dissatisfaction about their performance and evaluated the presence of the experimenter as significantly less pleasant than their noncrowded-condition counterparts.     

Assessment of the influence of background noise on escape-maintained problem behavior and pain behavior in a child with Williams syndrome

We examined the influence of background noise on levels of problem behavior and pain behavior under functional analysis conditions for a child with a diagnosis of Williams syndrome and hyperacusis. Background noise was associated with increases in escape-maintained problem behavior and increases in pain behavior such as clasping ears and crying. When the child was fitted with earplugs, there were substantial reductions in both problem and pain behavior under the background noise condition.     

Hunger-related intrusive thoughts reflect increased accessibility of food items

The elaborated intrusion model (Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005) argues that a craving episode begins with a desire-related intrusive thought. This study tests the assumption that such intrusive thoughts, during hunger, reflect an increase in accessibility of food-related information in memory. Fifty-six undergraduates were randomly assigned to hungry or satiated conditions. Hunger was manipulated by asking the “hungry” group to abstain from eating breakfast and snacks prior to testing before lunch, while the “satiated” group was asked to eat normally and attend testing after lunch. Participants completed a lexical decision task containing food-related and neutral words, an intrusive thoughts questionnaire and a hunger questionnaire. Priming for food-related items relative to neutral on the lexical decision task was higher for hungry participants than satiated participants. Priming correlated strongly with frequency of food-related intrusive thoughts during the task. We conclude that desire-related lexical decision priming could provide a useful objective correlate of proneness to desire-related intrusions.     

Liquid rescheduling for the treatment of rumination

A pre‐intervention assessment was conducted to determine the conditions under which rumination by a 19‐year‐old man with autism was most and least likely to occur. The results of the assessment suggested that rumination was least likely when the participant did not consume liquids with meals and when he consumed peanut butter during meals. Based upon the results of the assessment, an intervention consisting of rescheduling access to liquids (i.e., no liquids during meals) was evaluated across both breakfast and lunch at the participant's school placement. Results suggest that the intervention was effective in reducing rumination. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.