Reflections on Christian Education

During the school year of 1994–1995 students (n = 1611) attending Seventh-day Adventist high schools in the United States of America completed questionnaires designed to assess their HIV/AIDS-related knowledge and behaviors. AIDS-related behavioral intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control were also assessed according to the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1989). The rates of the sexual and drug-use behaviors measured in this population are lower than for students who attend public high schools. Increased risk for participating in sexual intercourse, the key AIDS-risk behavior in youth, was associated with the students' substance use and also by their parents' use of substances. Measurements designed in accord with the Theory of Planned Behavior revealed that students most relied on spiritual strength and encouragement from teachers to manage their control over premarital sexual intercourse.     

Pizza and pop and the student identity: the role of referent group norms in healthy and unhealthy eating

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (I. Ajzen, 1985, 1991) and referent group (student) norms and identification (D. J. Terry & M. A. Hogg, 1996), the authors longitudinally predicted healthy eating intentions and behavior in a sample of 137 university students. Specifically, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control predicted intentions at Time 1, which predicted self-reported behavior at Time 2. There was also a link between intentions and observed behavior at Time 2. Beyond the planned behavior variables, referent group norms for university students' eating behavior interacted with participants' identification as students to predict healthy eating intentions. The authors discussed implications for researcher's conceptualization of normative influence and for interventions into this group's eating behavior.     

Physically active students' intentions and self-efficacy towards healthy eating

This study investigated intentions and self-efficacy of physically active university students towards healthy eating. The application of Planned Behavior theory has shown that attitudes, intention, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms play an important role in shaping people's behavior. 96 students, who participated in physical activities, voluntarily completed the Questionnaire for the Planned Behavior Model and the Health Behavior Questionnaire. The former examines attitudes, intentions, perceived behavioral control, and the lately added attitude strength, and role identity towards the behavior factors. The latter assesses one's efficacy expectations towards healthy eating. The regression showed strong associations between the examined variables, signifying that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and role identity could account for one's intention towards healthy eating behaviors. On the other hand, one's self-efficacy for healthy eating could be explained from the attitudes, intention, perceived behavioral control, and attitude strength held. Overall, systematic participation in physical activities appeared to be accompanied with a relatively healthier diet, while self-efficacy had a significant association with maintaining the healthy eating behaviors. Possible interpretations, limitations, and implications for health professionals are discussed.     

Mental Health Services Use Intentions Among Canadian Military Recruits

Identifying the factors associated with mental health services use (MHSU) is an important step in developing strategies to improve services access and delivery. The aims of the present study were to (a) identify personality and individual difference characteristics associated with MHSU intentions within the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and (b) explore complex relationships that might exist between these characteristics and determinants of MHSU intentions identified in TPB, including attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Data for 244 Canadian Armed Forces recruits who completed a MHSU questionnaire following mental health training were linked to personality data collected earlier. Multivariate analyses showed that the relationship between agreeableness and MHSU intentions was mediated by instrumental attitudes and subjective norms. The relationship between hardiness and MHSU intentions was mediated by subjective norms and self-efficacy. Findings suggest it may be worthwhile to consider mental health education initiatives to improve MHSU.     

Differences in smoking attitudes of adolescents and young adults

This study employed the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine the differences between adolescent (n = 182) and young adults (n = 209) in their intention to smoke and examined possible differences. Analysis showed that young adults had more positive self-reported attitudes toward smoking than adolescents, had higher intentions to smoke, lower perceived behavioral control over smoking and perceived they were more informed about smoking. The Theory of Planned Behavior provided good prediction of intention for both young adults (R2 = .70, attitudes, information, and past behavior significant) and adolescents (R2 = .68, attitudes, past behavior significant). For both samples attitudes were the strongest predictor of intentions to smoke. Implications for understanding intention toward smoking between adolescents and young adults are discussed.     

Group processes in food choices: The role of ethnic identity and perceived ethnic norms upon intentions to purchase ethnical food products

A study tested an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model, inclusive of measures of ethnical identification and perceived ethnic group norms, in the ethnical food purchasing domain. One hundred and thirty‐five Jamaicans, living in the Brixton neighbourhood, London, were administered a self‐reported questionnaire measuring the classical TPB components (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, behavioural intentions) plus three additional components: identification with the Jamaican group, perceived norms of the Jamaican group and past behaviour. Results of hierarchical multiple regressions showed that past behaviour, ethnical identification and perceived group norms explain an additional proportion of variance in intentions, independently of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control. A two‐way interaction, between ethnical identification and perceived group norms, was detected. A stronger relation between group norms and intentions emerged among high ethnical identifiers. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme to promote physical activity: an application of the theory of planned behavior

The Theory of Planned Behavior provides a useful framework to study attitudes toward participation in physical activity. The objective of the study was to test the effectiveness of an intervention in manipulating the variables of the Theory of Planned Behavior and exercise habits with 366 high school students (M = 14.2 yr., SD = .7; 201 boys and 165 girls). The students were divided into intervention and control groups. A questionnaire to measure components of the theory, and the Baecke Questionnaire of Habitual Activity measuring exercise habits, were administered. The intervention lasted 12 wk. and included posters and lectures promoting participation in physical activity. Analyses showed the intervention was effective in improving attitudes towards physical activity, perceived behavioral control, intention, and self-reported actual behavior, but it was ineffective for improving attitude strength, subjective norms, and role identity. The results provide useful information for physical education teachers interested in promoting students' positive attitudes towards physical activity.     

Predicting career information-seeking behavior of school pupils using the theory of planned behavior

The variation in the extent to which adolescents engage in career exploratory behavior is large. This study examined the utility of the Theory of Planned Behavior, augmented by the addition of a past behavior variable, in predicting information-seeking behavior in a school pupil sample. A sample of 278 adolescents completed a questionnaire administered six weeks into the first term and again six weeks later. A structural equation modeling analysis, using LISREL 8.3, suggested that the enhanced TPB adequately accounted for the data (RMSEA=0.047). The results indicated that behavioral intentions to search for career information were influenced primarily by past behavior and to a lesser extent by attitudes towards career exploratory behavior. Future behavior was explained best by past behavior. Social norms and perceived behavioral control exerted no significant influence on behavioral intentions or self-reported career exploratory behavior.     

Using the theory of planned behavior to examine residential substance abuse workers intention to use evidence-based practices

There is considerable discrepancy between what is considered evidence-based practice (EBP) and what is actually delivered in substance abuse treatment settings. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TpB) is a well-established model that may assist in better understanding clinician's intentions to use EBPs. A total of 106 residential substance abuse workers employed by The Salvation Army participated in the current study. The workers completed an anonymous survey that assessed attitudes toward EBP and examined the constructs within the TpB. A linear regression analysis was used to predict clinicians' intentions to use EBPs. Overall, the model accounted for 41% of the variance in intentions, with attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control all significant predictors. The discussion highlights the potential for social reinforcement in the workplace to promote the implementation of EBPs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The role of affect in the decision to exercise: Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?

ObjectiveThis study investigated the influence of affect on individuals' intentions to engage in physical activities such as exercise. Behavior intentions were examined through the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).MethodAn experimental survey was conducted among 153 undergraduates randomly assigned to three conditions – positive affect, neutral, and negative affect. Key variables from the TPB were assessed across these conditions.ResultsAnalyses showed that participants in the positive affect and the negative affect conditions reported lower intentions to exercise than those in the neutral condition. Participants in the negative affect condition also reported more unfavorable attitudes toward exercise than their positive or neutral counterparts. Other TPB measures remained stable across the three conditions. In particular, perceived behavioral control and attitude were significant predictors of behavior intention in the pooled sample.ConclusionThese results underline the important role that affect, especially negative affect, plays in individuals' decision to exercise. Rational models for health behavior change, such as the TPB, should take into account the impact of affect.     

Distinguishing Between Perceived Behavioral Control and Self-Efficacy in the Domain of Academic Achievement Intentions and Behaviors

We examined whether perceived behavioral control (PBC) and self-efficacy (S-E) can be distinguished empirically, and whether they make different contributions to the prediction of intentions and behavior. The behavioral criterion was performance in 3 high-school examinations. Measures of attitude, subjective norm, PBC, S-E, and intention were taken before the examinations. Grade achieved served as the behavioral measure. Factor analysis of items intended to measure PBC and S-E extracted 2 factors: confidence in ability to achieve the behavioral outcome, and belief that the outcome can be influenced by own efforts. Scores on these factors were labeled S-E and perceived control, respectively. Behavior was predicted better by S-E than by intentions, and intentions were more closely related to S-E than to attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived control.     

Evaluation of a planned behavior theory-based intervention programme to promote healthy eating

The objective of the study was to test the effectiveness of an intervention program based on the theoretical framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior, with the addition of attitude strength and role identity. The aim was to alter adolescents' healthy eating attitudes and behaviour. In the sample were 335 high school students, who were divided into intervention and control groups. The intervention lasted 12 weeks and included posters and lectures promoting healthy eating. The measures included a questionnaire assessing the hypothesis and a food frequency questionnaire which measured eating habits. Analysis showed the intervention was effective in proving attitudes toward healthy eating and attitude strength, intention, perceived behavioral control, and healthy eating behaviour, but not effective in predicting subjective norms and role identity. Results provide evidence that intervention changed attitudes toward a behavior in a school setting.     

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Social Justice Scale (SJS)

The study describes the development of the Social Justice Scale (SJS). Practitioners, educators, students, and other members of the community differ on their attitudes and values regarding social justice. It is important to assess, not only individuals' attitudes and values around social values, but also other constructs that might be related to social justice behaviors. The implication of Ajzen in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50:179-211, (1991) theory of planned behavior suggests that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and social norms predict intentions, which then lead to behaviors. A scale was designed to measure social justice-related values, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and intentions based on a four-factor conception of Ajzen's theory. Confirmatory factor analysis and analyses for reliability and validity were used to test the properties of the scale.     

The importance of subjective norms for people who care what others think of them

Using the framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), this study examined whether the extent to which people are concerned with others’ approval of them moderates the subjective norms–intentions relationship in the context of exercise. The participants were 325 undergraduate students who completed a questionnaire assessing the TPB constructs (subjective norms, attitudes, perceived behavioural control, intentions) and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. The results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that subjective norms were a significant predictor of intentions to exercise only for people highly concerned with receiving disapproval from others (i.e., high fear of negative evaluation) and not for people low on this trait.     

Predicting adolescent pedestrians’ behavioral intentions to follow the masses in risky crossing situations

Adolescent pedestrians are a major population at risk of being killed or injured in traffic accidents, especially in developing countries. In the current study, we examined the effects of age, gender, sensation seeking, and conformity tendency on Chinese adolescent pedestrians’ intention to cross the road against a traffic signal. A sample of 510 adolescents, aged 12–19 years, completed a series of questionnaires comprising (1) a demographic questionnaire, (2) scales which measured their tendency towards social conformity and sensation seeking, and (3) a questionnaire based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which measured their intention to cross the road in two different traffic scenarios. One scenario depicted a situation where the crossing was consistent with other pedestrians’ behavior (Conformity scenario). In the second scenario, the road crossing was inconsistent with other pedestrians (Non-conformity scenario). Along with behavioral intentions, attitudes towards the behavior, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, anticipated affect, moral norms, and perceived risk were also assessed. In general, adolescent participants reported greater likelihood in crossing the road when other pedestrians were crossing the road as well (Conformity with the masses) and adolescents in middle school were more likely to cross than those in high school. A hierarchical regression model explained 30% of the variance in behavioral intention in the Non-conformity scenario and 40% of the variance in the Conformity scenario. For both scenarios, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and anticipated affect emerged as common predictors. The theoretical and practical implications for these results are discussed.     

Antecedents of children's physical activity intentions and behaviour: Predictive validity and longitudinal effects

Abstract

This study examined the predictive validity and time-lagged relationships in a model of children's physical activity intentions, attitudes, perceived behavioural control (PBC), behaviour and past behaviour using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985) as a framework. In Study 1, 386 children aged 12–14 years completed measures of intentions, attitudes, subjective norm, PBC and past behaviour. Their physical activity behaviour was assessed one week later. Structural equation analyses supported the construct and predictive validity of the TPB with the exception of subjective norms which did not predict intentions. In Study 2,70 children completed measures of their physical activity attitudes, intentions, PBC and past behaviour. Attitudes, intentions, PBC and recent behaviour were re-assessed five weeks later. The cognitions demonstrated a moderate degree of stability over time and there were some cross-lagged effects between attitudes and PBC. Past behaviour demonstrated additive rather than attenuating effects. These results support the use of the TPB cognitions and past behaviour as a framework to examine children's physical activity behaviour.     

Functional significance of psychological variables that are included in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a Self-Determination Theory approach to the study of attitudes,subjective norms,perceptions of control and intentions

The Theory of Planned Behaviour was proposed by Ajzen (1985) in an attempt to expand the applicability of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to situations where behaviour is not under complete volitional control. However, recent research does not address the issue of the stability of intentions, yet this is considered a boundary condition of the TRA on theoretical grounds. Therefore, the purposes of the present article were, first, to make a theoretical approach to the study of the stability of behavioural intentions by discussing assumptions underlying self-determination theory. Second, because, according to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), stability of intentions is related to the functional significance of psychological events, investigation of the functional significance of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control was attempted through a study dealing with leisure-time physical activity. Because investigation of functional significance requires instruments assessing behavioural regulations, instrument development took place. Results partially supported the validity of behavioural regulations with respect to leisure-time physical activity. Furthermore, subjective norms were found to represent only the controlling dimension of functional significance. Attitudes and perceived behavioural control were found to represent both the controlling and informational dimensions of functional significance. Results are discussed in relation to assumptions underlying the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Trying. Implications for theory development are made. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.