Behavioral and neural analyses of connotative meaning: Word classes and rating scales

Behavioral (semantic differential) and neural (Evoked Potentials, EPs) responses were related to connotative meaning. The approach was based on Osgood's semantic analyses and dimensions of Evaluation (E), Potency (P), and Activity (A). The experimental variables were (1) the semantic class of the stimulus word (E+, E-, P+, P-, A+, A-) and (2) the dimension of the semantic scale (E, P, A) which the subject used to rate the stimulus words. These variables were experimentally combined such that on each trial the subject used a designated semantic scale to judge a specified stimulus word while brain activity was recorded. Using multivariate analyses, the effects on the EPs of stimulus word class, scale dimension, and their interaction were analyzed. The EP effects of stimulus word class were similar whether the subjects were merely saying the words or rating the words on a variety of semantic scales. Different EPs were found for six word classes, three semantic scale dimensions, and the 18 groups formed by their combination. The success rates in EP identification of (1) word class and (2) scale dimension did not depend on whether these two kinds of semantic variables involved the same or different semantic dimensions. The two kinds of semantic effects in EPs were largely independent. The behavioral data supported Osgood's results and showed that our subjects were appropriately processing the semantic information. The common analyses of data from all subjects suggest the universality of the connotative EP effects across individuals. This parallels, at the neural level, the universality of the connotative dimensions found at the behavioral level by semantic differential ratings. The EP effects imply that the neural representation of meaning is similar in different individuals.     

The recall of relevant and incidental dimensional values as a function of perceptual salience, congitive set, and age.

In two experiments, subjects were presented an array of compound stimuli consisting of values from four, salience-assessed dimensions. Solution to an initial problem required recall of the array locations of values from only the most salient dimension. In addition to perceptual salience, instructions designed to establish cognitive sets for remembering value locations of certain dimensions were varied to explore the roles of these perceptual and cognitive variables in determining recall. In Experiment I, which involved subjects from grades kindergarten, third, and sixth, older subjects recalled more incidental as well as relevant information than younger subjects, and although instructions to remember values of a less salient incidental dimension facilitated their recall, the same instructions also facilitated the recall of values of a more salient incidental dimension even though no reference was made to those values. In Experiment II, adult recall of both relevant and incidental information was affected by instructions about differing numbers and types of dimensions. Adults and the oldest children did not differ in total information recalled, and there was no evidence for an increase with age in the cognitive ability to select only that information that was relevant to solving the initial problem. The results were discussed in terms of developmental changes in memory capacity and the absolute salience of the task information.     

Perceptual selectivity for color and form

Three visual-search experiments tested whether the preattentive parallel stage can-selectively guide the attentive stage to a particular known-to-be-relevant target feature. Subjects searched multielement displays for a salient green circle that had a unique form when surrounded by green nontarget squares or had a unique color when surrounded by red nontarget circles. In the distractor conditions, a salient item in the other dimension was present as well. As an extension of earlier findings (Theeuwes, 1991), the results showed that complete top-down selectivity toward a particular feature was not possible, not even after extended and consistent practice. The results reveal that selectivity depends on the relative discriminability of the stimulus dimensions: the presence of an irrelevant item with a unique color interferes with parallel search for a unique form, and vice versa.     

The prevalence effect in two-dimensional stimulus-response compatibility is a function of the relative salience of the dimensions

When stimulus-response (S-R) sets vary along horizontal and vertical dimensions, a right-left prevalence effect is often obtained in which the horizontal compatibility effect is larger than the vertical compatibility effect. Vu and Proctor (2001) showed that the prevalence effect varies as a function of the dimension made salient by the response configuration. A salient features coding interpretation of this result implies that manipulating the salience of the stimulus display should produce similar results and that S-R translation should be fastest when salient features of the stimulus and the response sets correspond. Experiment 1 manipulated spatial proximity to make the vertical or the horizontal stimulus dimension salient. Neutral displays yielded a typical right-left prevalence effect, and this effect was enhanced by horizontal-salient displays and eliminated by vertical-salient displays. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the benefit for horizontal (or vertical) compatibility was larger when the salient features of both the stimulus and the response sets emphasized the horizontal (or the vertical) dimension than when only one did. The results support salient features coding as an explanation for the prevalence effect obtained with two-dimensional S-R arrangements.     

Using conjoint-measurement models to investigate a theory about probabilistic information processing

A theory of how opinions are formed and revised on the basis of probabilistic evidence is presented. The decision maker is viewed as a limited information processor who attends to the dimensions of a sample of equivocal information in a sequential fashion, beginning with the most salient dimension and continuing in decreasing order of salience. The contribution of each dimension level to the final opinion depends on the strength of association between that level and each of the two hypotheses under consideration. This theory is represented formally as an additive-difference model, various special cases of which correspond to other algebraic models in the literature. Two of the special cases were empirically investigated under varying levels of experience and payoffs, using the techniques of conjoint-measurement theory and ordinal data from individual subjects. The data provided reasonably good support for the models under all conditions investigated, and in addition showed interesting effects on salience and on processing of the independent variables.     

Perceptual selectivity for color and form.

Three visual-search experiments tested whether the preattentive parallel stage can selectively guide the attentive stage to a particular known-to-be-relevant target feature. Subjects searched multielement displays for a salient green circle that had a unique form when surrounded by green nontarget squares or had a unique color when surrounded by red nontarget circles. In the distractor conditions, a salient item in the other dimension was present as well. As an extension of earlier findings (Theeuwes, 1991), the results showed that complete top-down selectivity toward a particular feature was not possible, not even after extended and consistent practice. The results reveal that selectivity depends on the relative discriminability of the stimulus dimensions: the presence of an irrelevant item with a unique color interferes with parallel search for a unique form, and vice versa.     

A developmental study of the effects of irrelevant information on speeded classification

The study examined how well subjects were able to ignore the presence of irrelevant stimulus information as a function of age. Children aged 6, 9, and 12, as well as adult subjects sorted cards with one binary dimension relevant, and zero, one, or two dimensions irrelevant. Speed of classification was measured. Significant effects of age, sex, number of irrelevant dimensions, and relevant dimension on speed of classification were obtained, as well as a number of interactions of these variables. The most important finding was that the presence of irrelevant information interfered with the performance of the task by child subjects and that the magnitude of the interference declined with age. The results were interpreted as implying that developmental trends in attention may be most clearly demonstrated in tasks which require speeded processing of stimuli. The ease of administration of the speeded classification task, coupled with the clear developmental trends obtained, recommend this paradigm as a useful one with which to study the development of selective attention.     

Effects of white noise and irrelevant information on speeded classification: A developmental study

The study examined how well subjects were able to ignore the presence of irrelevant stimulus information in noise and in silence, as a function of age. Children aged six and nine, and adults, performed speeded card-sorting tasks with one binary dimension relevant and zero or two dimensions irrelevant. The presence of irrelevant information interfered with performance, the magnitude of interference declining with age. The interfering effects of irrelevant information were greater when it was (relatively) more salient than when it was less salient, but there was no interaction between relative salience and the effects of noise. Noise (95 dB(A)) slowed down sorting performance of adult subjects in all conditions, it slightly improved the performance of nine-year-old children, and it improved the performance of six-year-old children significantly when irrelevant information was present. The effects of noise on attentional control are discussed, mainly with reference to inhibitory effects of noise on subvocal activity.     

Does right-left prevalence occur for the Simon effect?

In four experiments, we investigated whether a right-left prevalence effect occurs for the Simon task, in which stimulus location is irrelevant, when the stimulus and the response sets vary along horizontal and vertical dimensions simultaneously. Simon effects were evident for both dimensions, and they were of similar magnitude, indicating no prevalence effect. Manipulations of the relative salience of the dimensions for the stimulus and the response sets resulted in a larger Simon effect for the more salient dimension than for the less salient one, but there was no overall prevalence effect. The results indicate that manipulations of salience affect the relative magnitudes of automatic response activation for the vertical and the horizontal dimensions but that the right-left prevalence effect is due to a coding bias in intentional response selection processes when stimulus location is relevant.     

Ambiguous-cue learning in preschool children: A test of the dimensional characteristics of task stimuli

Sixteen preschool children were administered a two-choice discrimination problem consisting of three stimulus compounds: the consistently rewarded stimulus, the consistently nonrewarded stimulus, and the ambiguous stimulus which was nonrewarded when paired with the positive, but rewarded when paired with the negative. When both pair of stimuli, positive-ambiguous and negative-ambiguous, were presented together the subject was required either to choose or to avoid the ambiguous stimulus depending upon the stimulus with which it was paired. In Experiment 1, when each of three stimuli (positive, negative, ambiguous) varied along one nonspatial cue dimension (color), performance was better on negative-ambiguous trials than positive-ambiguous trials. In Experiment 2, when the positive and negative stimuli varied along three nonspatial cue dimensions (colors and form) and the ambiguous stimulus varied along one of these dimensions (color), superior positive-ambiguous over negative-ambiguous performance was obtained. These findings complement those reported for other subjects and confirm Berch's (D. B. Berch, Learning and Motivation, 1974, 5, 135–148) predictions regarding use of differential numbers of cue dimensions.     

Folded additive structures: A nonpolynomial model of some factorial interactions

A nonpolynomial measurement model for representing nonadditive compositions of stimulus dimensions is presented. This representation, which is referred to as a folded additive structure, permits the decomposition of a behavioral ordering into independent factors in some of the cases where the behavior itself does not directly reflect this independence. Psychologically, this representation corresponds to a model of behavior which assumes that (1) the effect stimulus attributes have on behavior is mediated by a single relevent psychological dimension, (2) the behavioral ordering is single-peaked over this mediating dimension and (3) the mediating dimension has a conjoint additive ordering over a set of relevent stimulus dimensions. Necessary and sufficient tests for folded additive structures are given. In addition, five psychological theories which make these assumptions are discussed.     

Trait attributions and defense against insult from a dissimilar other

It was hypothesized that subjects would prefer to blame a character assault on negative ability characteristics of a dissimilar attacker as opposed to negative motivational characteristics in order to escape responsibility for the attack. It was reasoned that because we generally think of ourselves as having less potential influence over the abilities as opposed to the motivations of another person, it might be possible to diminish one's responsibility for another's behavior by attributing that behavior to that person's ability characteristics. Subjects in this experiment responded either to an insulting or noninsulting stimulus person who was either similar or dissimilar by selecting from a list of both motivational and ability bipolar trait dimensions, those dimensions they would most prefer to use in rating the stimulus person. As predicted, subjects responding to an insulting and dissimilar stimulus person showed a significantly greater preference for ability trait dimensions than subjects in the other conditions combined and also disliked the stimulus person more. The significance of these results for defensive attribution processes and phenomena such as racism and sexism are discussed.     

Intrusion patterns in rapid serial visual presentation tasks with two response dimensions

A rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm using both one and two response dimensions was used to test parallel processing models of stimulus dimensions. Fifty subjects were asked to report the identity and/or color of a target uppercase word inserted in a series of lowercase words. The results produced a predominance of posttarget intrusions for color responses and a predominance of pretarget intrusions for identity responses. The requirement of a response to a second dimension impaired hit rates but did not change the pattern of intrusions. An examination of the distributions of intrusions in each response dimension as a function of the response given to the other dimension showed an unexpectedly high percentage of simultaneous hits, a moderate covariation between both responses, and the same patterns of intrusions when compared with the general distributions. While these results seem to be compatible with parallel models of processing for stimulus dimensions, two modifications to this model are suggested. First, the processing of response dimension(s) needs some attentional resources. Second, provision for a mixed model is indicated, which would include trials where no illusory conjunctions are formed.     

Intrusion patterns in rapid serial visual presentation tasks with two response dimensions.

A rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm using both one and two response dimensions was used to test parallel processing models of stimulus dimensions. Fifty subjects were asked to report the identity and/or color of a target uppercase word inserted in a series of lowercase words. The results produced a predominance of posttarget intrusions for color responses and a predominance of pretarget intrusions for identity responses. The requirement of a response to a second dimension impaired hit rates but did not change the pattern of intrusions. An examination of the distributions of intrusions in each response dimension as a function of the response given to the other dimension showed an unexpectedly high percentage of simultaneous hits, a moderate covariation between both responses, and the same patterns of intrusions when compared with the general distributions. While these results seem to be compatible with parallel models of processing for stimulus dimensions, two modifications to this model are suggested. First, the processing of response dimension(s) needs some attentional resources. Second, provision for a mixed model is indicated, which would include trials where no illusory conjunctions are formed.     

Children's judgments of numerical quantity: A new view of early quantification

Three experiments investigated the role of length, density, and number dimensions in children's numerosity judgments of linear arrays of beads. The number dimension is physically defined by a length × density rule. Judgments based, even in part, on the number dimension would show signs of a length × density rule. Experiment 1 examined numerosity judgments of large arrays. Results showed that judgments by 3- and 4-year-olds obeyed a length + density rule, providing cogent evidence for a general adding strategy in young children's judgments of quantity. The physical length × density rule emerged gradually with increasing age. Experiment 2 showed that numerosity judgments of small arrays by 3- and 4-year-olds obeyed a length × density rule, indicating response to the number dimension. This result was expected and thereby validated the linearity of the response scale at the youngest ages. Experiment 3 verified the integration rules for individual 3- and 4-year-olds. The integration rules were interpreted in terms of Piaget's stages of the development of quantification. No evidence for Piaget's initial stage was found. This leads to a new view of early quantification which grants young children the ability to integrate stimulus dimensions.     

Determinants of right-left and top-bottom prevalence for two-dimensional spatial compatibility

When stimulus and response sets vary along horizontal and vertical dimensions, the horizontal dimension is more dominant than the vertical one, an effect called right-left prevalence. Three accounts have been proposed that attribute the effect to a reduced ability to code vertical locations when horizontal codes are also present, the use of right-left effectors, or a difference in salience of the 2 dimensions. The accounts differ in terms of whether the ability to code and process the 2 dimensions is of limited capacity and whether the prevalence effect is a consequence of the effectors used for responding. The authors report 4 experiments that evaluated these issues. Results indicate that use of right-left effectors is important to the right-left prevalence effect because it increases the salience of the horizontal dimension. However, a top-bottom prevalence effect can be obtained if the vertical dimension is made more salient.     

A negativity bias in interpersonal evaluation

Two studies were conducted to demonstrate a bias toward negativity in evaluations of persons or their work in particular social circumstances. In Study 1, subjects evaluated materials written by peers. Those working under conditions that placed them in low status relative to the audience for their evaluations, or conditions that made their intellectual position within a group insecure, showed a clear bias toward negativity in those evaluations. Only individuals who believed their audience to be of relatively low status and at the same time believed their intellectual position to be secure did not show this bias. In Study 2, subjects viewed a videotape of a stimulus person and rated him on several intellectual and social dimensions. Again, subjects believed their audience to be of either relatively high or relatively low status. As a cross dimension, they were given instructions to focus on either the intellectual or the social abilities of the stimulus person while viewing the videotape. A strong main effect of audience status was demonstrated, but only in ratings of intellectual traits; subjects who believed their audience to be of relatively high status rated the stimulus person's intellectual qualities significantly more negatively. Moreover, this effect was independent of the instructional focus subjects had been given. The negativity bias is discussed in the context of previous demonstrations of biases toward weighting negative information more heavily than positive information, as well as previous demonstrations of seemingly pervasive positivity biases in memory and judgment.     

Vertical versus horizontal spatial compatibility: Right-left prevalence with bimanual responses

For two-choice tasks in which stimulus and response locations vary along horizontal and vertical dimensions, the spatial compatibility effect is often stronger on the horizontal than vertical dimension. Umiltà and Nicoletti [(1990) Spatial stimulus-response compatibility (pp. 89–116). Amsterdam: North-Holland] attributed this right-left prevalence effect to an inability to code vertical location when horizontal codes are present simultaneously. Hommel [(1996) Perception & Psychophysics, 43, 102–110] suggested instead that it reflects a voluntary strategy. This study reports four experiments that examine this issue. Experiment 1 was a conceptual replication of Hommel's Experiment 1, with responses made on a numeric keypad and subjects instructed in terms of the vertical or horizontal dimension. The results replicated Hommel's findings that showed a right-left advantage with horizontal instructions; however, with vertical instructions, we found a benefit of vertical compatibility alone that he did not. This benefit for vertical compatibility alone was eliminated in Experiment 2 using a varied practice schedule similar to that used by Hommel. Experiment 3 showed right-left prevalence and a benefit of vertical compatibility alone, even with varied practice and vertical instructions, when subjects responded on perpendicularly arranged handgrips. These benefits were eliminated in Experiment 4 using Hommel's method of urging subjects to respond only in terms of the instructed dimension. With bimanual responses, right-left prevalence is a robust phenomenon that is evident when comparing across vertical and horizontal instructions and, when the right-left distinction is relatively salient, within the vertical instructions condition alone. Received: 4 February 2000 / Accepted: 5 May 2000     

The effects of intradimensional and extradimensional shifts on visual discrimination learning in humans and non-human primates

Human subjects and non-human primates (the common marmoset) were trained on a series of reversals of both a simple (stimuli varying along one dimension) and compound (stimuli varying along two different dimensions) visual discrimination, using computer-generated stimuli. They were then shifted to a third series of reversals using completely novel compound stimuli. Those humans and marmosets for which the previously relevant dimension remained relevant, following the shift (shapes to shapes or lines to lines; intradimensional shift) made fewer errors than those for which the previously irrelevant dimension became relevant (shapes to lines or lines to shapes; extradimensional shift). These findings suggest that both humans and marmosets can learn to attend to the specific attributes or dimensions of a stimulus and use this information in visual discrimination learning.     

Influence of auditory and audiovisual stimuli on the right–left prevalence effect

When auditory stimuli are used in two-dimensional spatial compatibility tasks, where the stimulus and response configurations vary along the horizontal and vertical dimensions simultaneously, a right–left prevalence effect occurs in which horizontal compatibility dominates over vertical compatibility. The right–left prevalence effects obtained with auditory stimuli are typically larger than that obtained with visual stimuli even though less attention should be demanded from the horizontal dimension in auditory processing. In the present study, we examined whether auditory or visual dominance occurs when the two-dimensional stimuli are audiovisual, as well as whether there will be cross-modal facilitation of response selection for the horizontal and vertical dimensions. We also examined whether there is an additional benefit of adding a pitch dimension to the auditory stimulus to facilitate vertical coding through use of the spatial-musical association of response codes (SMARC) effect, where pitch is coded in terms of height in space. In Experiment 1, we found a larger right–left prevalence effect for unimodal auditory than visual stimuli. Neutral, non-pitch coded, audiovisual stimuli did not result in cross-modal facilitation, but did show evidence of visual dominance. The right–left prevalence effect was eliminated in the presence of SMARC audiovisual stimuli, but the effect influenced horizontal rather than vertical coding. Experiment 2 showed that the influence of the pitch dimension was not in terms of influencing response selection on a trial-to-trial basis, but in terms of altering the salience of the task environment. Taken together, these findings indicate that in the absence of salient vertical cues, auditory and audiovisual stimuli tend to be coded along the horizontal dimension and vision tends to dominate audition in this two-dimensional spatial stimulus–response task.