‘Fundamentalism’ Christian and Islamic

This article seeks to answer the question whether the term ‘fundamentalism’ is an appropriate label for certain Islamic movements by undertaking a detailed comparison with Protestant Christian fundamentalism, for which the term was originally coined. After an effort to identify and characterize the two phenomena, a number of similarities and differences are discussed. Among the differences is the fact that the most obvious defining characteristics in each case (Biblical inerrancy for Protestants and politicalsocial involvement for Muslims) are of little relevance to the other case. Among the similarities is a common opposition to ‘modernism’ and a tendency to stress what has been distinctive to the Protestant and Islamic traditions, respectively. The conclusion is that, while the two phenomena do have much in common, ‘fundamentalism’ is not an appropriate common label. The author prefers ‘Islamic radicalism’ for the Muslim case and tentatively suggests ‘radical neotraditionalism’ as a common label.     

Differences in physique in men called ‘Smith’ or ‘Tailor’ considered as results of a genetic effect dating back over several centuries

Differences in answers on a questionnaire regarding weight, ‘solidity’, putative suitability for sports involving strength as opposed to agility, occupations calling for strenght or agility respectively, and personal preferences of hobbies demanding strength or agility were ascertained between 110 male bearers of the name Smith and the same number of bearers of the name Tailor. Observed differences were related to a hypothesis involving genetic effects going back over centuries and depending on bodily characteristics related to the professions of smith and tailor respectively. The size of the observed differences is such as to suggest assortative mating with respect to the traits involved, as well as the isolation of special breeding populations.     

Black–White differences on the g-factor in South Africa: a “Jensen Effect” on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — revised

A test is made to determine whether South African Black–White differences on various tests of cognitive performance are like the Black–White differences in the United States in being positively associated with a test's g loadings, where g is the general factor of intelligence. Data are analyzed from Skuy, Schutte, Fridjhon and O'Carroll [Skuy, M., Schutte, E., Fridjhon, P., & O'Carroll, S. (2001). Suitability of published neuropsychological test norms for urban African secondary school strudents in South Africa. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1413–1425) of 154 13- to 15-year-old secondary school students in Soweto, Johannesburg, on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Revised (WISC-R). The more highly correlated a sub-test was with g, the more it predicted the African–White difference (r =0.77, p=0.05). The effect remained even when the Vocabulary sub-test was excluded or when g was extracted from the Black rather than from the White standardization sample (r=0.60, P<0.05), as it did as well if Spearman's rho was used instead of Pearson's r (g from Whites=0.74, g from Blacks=0.74, P< 0.005). Understanding observed Black–White differences around the world requires new research on the nature and nurture of g.     

Humphreys's attenuated test of Spearman's hypothesis

Humphreys's test of Spearman's hypothesis (viz., that the size of the standardized black-white differences on various psychometric tests is positively related to the tests' loadings on g, the general intelligence factor) is methodologically weak. It is based on comparison of a fairly representative sample of the black population of U.S. school children with a highly selected sample of the white school population, representing the lowest 15 to 20% of whites in socio-economic status (SES). A fair test of the hypothesis requires that the black and white samples should not be selected on any g-correlated variable, such as SES. Selection attenuates and distorts the relationship between tests' g loadings and the magnitude of the standardized mean black-white differences on the tests. Other unorthodox conditions in Humphreys's study, such as performing factor analysis on the test-score means of various arbitrary demographic groups instead of on individual test scores inflates tests' g loadings and biases the test of Spearman's hypothesis by restriction of reliable variance in g loadings. Humphreys's study cannot be considered a proper replication of Jensen's examination of Spearman's hypothesis in 11 different studies comprising 74 different tests, which consistently bears out Spearman's hypothesis.     

Heart rate variability and respiratory concomitants of visual and nonvisual “imagery” and cognitive style

Attention to visual and nonvisual imagery, elicited by an imagery questionnaire, was studied using both within and between subjects analyses of cardiac and respiratory parameters. Visual imagery was accompanied by more regular interbeat heart rate (HR) and shorter, more stable respiratory cycles than nonvisual imagery. “Visually-oriented” thinkers (visualizers), identified by a word association test, manifested less overall variability in HR than “verbally-oriented” thinkers (verbalizers), as well as less variable HR and respiratory period during visual imagery. Visual and nonvisual imagery differed in HR variability for verbalizers and in respiration period for visualizers. The results are discussed in terms of the concepts of attention deployment, “mental load”, cerebral asymmetry, and stylistic personality differences in cognitive functioning.     

Drivers’ illusions––no more risk

In this invited address to the International Congress of Applied Psychology, it is argued that traffic psychology has not had a major impact on accident prevention. The factors that have determined this are discussed. A review of the theories and models pertinent to drivers’ risk taking and road user behaviour in general is presented. It is argued that both risk-homeostasis theories and task capability model are not sufficiently precise to be used as a basis for preventive measures. Attitude–behaviour models derived from social psychology have proved to be powerful in identifying motivational factors influencing road user behaviour, but the majority of empirical evidence is based on self-reported rather than observed behaviour. It is argued that individual differences can provide a basis for accident prevention, in particular driver training.     

Teachers’ implicit view of intelligence predict pupils’ self-perception as learners

Teachers regularly make judgements about their pupils’ intelligence while interacting with them in the classroom. The main aims of this paper are to analyse the structure of teachers’ judgements of their pupils’ intelligence, and to evaluate the influence that teachers have on pupils’ judgements of their own and their peers’ intelligence. Cross-cultural comparisons between English and Portuguese pupils are considered. In total 58 children 10- to 11-year-old and two teachers from London, UK and 47 children 5- to 6-year-old and two teachers from Lisbon, Portugal participated. The children completed aptitude tests and self-perception measures for general ability, reading and mathematical ability. The teachers ranked their pupils’ academic abilities from ‘best in the class’ to ‘weakest in the class’. Results show that teachers’ implicit conceptions of intelligence reflect a view of intelligence that is similar to what IQ tests measure. In addition the results support the notion that children’s verbal ability is more highly valued than mathematical ability. Moreover, the results also suggest that teachers have a considerable impact on their pupils’ self-perception as learners. Cultural differences are also discussed.     

The Neural Bases of Strategy and Skill in Sentence–Picture Verification

This experiment used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to examine the relation between individual differences in cognitive skill and the amount of cortical activation engendered by two strategies (linguistic vs. visual–spatial) in a sentence–picture verification task. The verbal strategy produced more activation in language-related cortical regions (e.g., Broca's area), whereas the visual–spatial strategy produced more activation in regions that have been implicated in visual–spatial reasoning (e.g., parietal cortex). These relations were also modulated by individual differences in cognitive skill: Individuals with better verbal skills (as measured by the reading span test) had less activation in Broca's area when they used the verbal strategy. Similarly, individuals with better visual–spatial skills (as measured by the Vandenberg, 1971, mental rotation test) had less activation in the left parietal cortex when they used the visual-spatial strategy. These results indicate that language and visual–spatial processing are supported by partially separable networks of cortical regions and suggests one basis for strategy selection: the minimization of cognitive workload.     

Science undergraduates’ and graduates’ epistemologies of science: the notion of interpretive frameworks

First-year science (biology, chemistry, physics) undergraduates’ and advanced graduate students’ understanding of the scientific research process was assessed using two clinical interviews: the “Nature of Science Interview” (International Journal of Science Education 11 (1989) 514; Cognition and Instruction 18 (2000) 349) and the “Nature Nurture Interview” (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 1992) which offered a context (a fictitious conflict of a nature and a nurture theorist about the causes of nervousness in dogs). The participants’ answers were then subjected to a categorical analysis using a coding scheme that progresses from an undifferentiated understanding of science as action (Level 1) to an understanding of science as an iterative process of theory formation, testing, and revision with increasing depth of explanation (Level 5). Results indicate that neither group had a clear understanding of the necessity of framework theories for the scientific research process. While no clear developmental progression was found, differences between students majoring in different fields emerged.     

Operant behavioral consultations as conducted by master's and doctoral level psychologists in Virginia

Compared the similarities and differences between the steps engaged in by master's and doctoral level school psychologists in Virginia as they conducted operant behavioral consultations. The data used in the comparisons came from a questionnaire completed by 42 master's level psychologists and 24 doctoral level psychologists. Two of the 12 major steps in conducting operant behavioral case consultations revealed significant differences, with the doctoral psychologists reporting a higher frequency of baseline observations being conducted and a greater frequency of observation during treatment. The doctoral psychologists also reported committing almost three times as much time to each case as did the master's level psychologists. Some discussion and questions are raised with regard to the implications of the above differences in relation to efficiency and outcomes of interventions by both groups.     

Correlates of children's television viewing: Expectancies,age, and sex

The relationship of interpersonal trust and locus of control expectancies to amounts of television viewing and viewing preferences were examined among children in grades five through eight. Age and sex differences in viewing times, preferences, and viewing habits, as well as children's scores on the Children's Interpersonal Trust Scale and the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale were assessed. Several findings suggested that heavy viewing is associated with less trusting perceptions of others and less belief in controlling one's academic successes and failures, although the pattern found does not suggest so specific an effect of viewing television violence as Gerbner's cultivation hypothesis might suggest. Age and sex differences found were largely consistent with those reported in the previous literature.     

International comparison of Cloninger’s temperament dimensions

Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) and Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) have been developed to measure the following temperament dimensions: novelty seeking (NS), harm avoidance (HA), reward dependence (RD) and persistence (P). We used our previous Finnish normative study of the TPQ and TCI (Miettunen et al., 2004) to estimate correction coefficients to convert TPQ scales to comparable TCI scales. Our aim was to compare these corrected temperament dimension scores across 20 countries adjusting for study sample differences in age and gender. In all, some variations were found in these temperament scores between countries. Differences were especially apparent between the Asian and the Western countries. By far the lowest mean score of the RD was in Japan (11.2 vs. 15.4 for other countries; effect size Cohen’s d = −5.74; z-test p < 0.001) and the highest mean score in P was in USA (5.5 vs. 4.4; d = 4.24, p = 0.001). Some of the findings could be explained by sample differences (e.g. age and education); while some may reflect real differences in the ways which personality is related to cultural factors, such as individualism/collectivism. These differences should be considered when interpreting studies with data on TPQ/TCI from different countries.     

Lack of correlation between digit ratio (2D:4D) and Baron-Cohen’s “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test, empathy, systemising, and autism-spectrum quotients in a general population sample

The second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is sexually differentiated and is a likely biomarker for the organisational (permanent) effects of prenatal testosterone on the human brain. Recent research has highlighted a possible role of prenatal testosterone levels in both the etiology of autism-spectrum disorders and in sex and individual differences in cognitive styles of the normal mind (Baron-Cohen’s Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism and Empathising/Systemising Theory). Importantly, autistic children present lower (hypermasculinised) 2D:4D than healthy controls. Based on these accounts, we investigated the relation of 2D:4D with Baron-Cohen’s measures of empathising (“Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test, RMET; Empathy Quotient, EQ), systemising (Systemising Quotient, SQ), and autistic-like traits (Autism-Spectrum Quotient, AQ) in the general population (N = 423 Austrian adults). Whereas sex differences into the expected direction and of expected size were obtained for all variables and internal scale consistencies tallied to retrievable reference values, 2D:4D was unrelated to RMET, EQ, SQ, and AQ scores. Candidate explanations for this lack of correlation might be possible developmental timing differences in the expression of 2D:4D and empathising/systemising, qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) functional differences between the normal and the autistic mind, or the suboptimal psychometric properties of the measures.     

Study habits and Eysenck's theory of extraversion-introversion

Predictions derived from Eysenck's theory of personality were tested in two samples by relating extraversion scores to library study locations, frequency of study breaks, and self-report of factors which influence study location. The predicted main effects for study location were found, with extraverts occupying locations that provided greater external stimulation. Positive correlations were consistently found between extraversion and preferred level of noise, preferred level of socializing opportunities, and rated importance of socializing opportunities. The prediction that extraverts would take more frequent study breaks was supported in Sample 1 but not replicated in Sample 2. The data are interpreted as providing direct support for Eysenck's theory of behavioral differences and mixed indirect support for his theory of neurological differences between introverts and extraverts.     

An informational analysis of actors' and observers' belief attributions in a role-playing situation

An actor's belief in a proposition was inferred by both the actor himself and an observer on the basis of information concerning (a) the actor's preparation and delivery of a speech on the proposition to an unseen audience, and (b) the audience's belief in the proposition. The availability of this information to judges was systematically varied. The position advocated by the actor in his speech and the audience's opinion affected both the actor's belief in the test proposition and the belief attributed to the actor by a disinterested observer. However, neither effect depended upon whether or not other belief-relevant information was also available. These results were interpreted as more consistent with a summative model of information integration than with an averaging model. Actors' behavior had similar effects upon both actors' estimates of how the audience would judge their beliefs and observers' actual estimates of these beliefs. However, these effects were both greater than the effect of their behavior on their own estimates of their beliefs. The apparent strength of the audience's belief in the target proposition had a positive influence upon both actors' beliefs in the proposition and observers' estimates of actors' beliefs, but had a negative, or contrast effect upon actors' expectancies for how the audience would judge their beliefs. Results were more consistent with the differential perspective hypothesis of actor-observer differences proposed by Jones and Nisbett than with the hypothesis that actors and observers differentially weight the implications of their past experience in formulating their judgments. Results had additional implications for the assumptions that persons make when using their behaviors as indications of their beliefs.     

Comparison of the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for men and women in an enterprising occupation

This study examined the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for men and women employed in an enterprising occupation. Using Holland-theme scores obtained from both the Self-Directed Search (SDS) and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII), the degree of personality-environment correspondence and the relationships of personality type to job satisfaction were examined in a sample of 45 male and 43 female sales managers. In general, the findings suggested that, at least within an employed sample, Holland's theory is valid for women as well as for men. Using both the SDS and the SCII, women and men obtained their highest scores on the enterprising theme, and the mean E-theme scores of women were at least as high as were those of men. Significant sex differences on the Realistic, Artistic, and Social scales, found using SDS scores and SCII standard scores, were in the direction of generally-found sex differences. Both men and women were highly satisfied with their jobs, and moderate relationships between job satisfaction and enterprising and social scores were also found. While the results of this study suggest optimism regarding the theoretical and practical utility of Holland's theory for women as well as for men, differences in results as a function of different instruments and scoring methods suggest the need for further studies of this kind.     

The effects of specific and categorical orienting on children's incidental and intentional memory for pictures and words

This study examines the effects of differences in the encoding of specific and categorical information on second graders' (7 years; 7 months), fifth graders' (10; 6), and college adults' cued recall for cue-target picture and word pairs. The cues at retrieval were either same-modal (P-P and W-W) or cross-modal (P-W and W-P) as the cues presented in acquisition, and acquisition encoding was either incidental or intentional and constrained by orienting questions or unconstrained. The most important results were that both picture and word recall varied with the encoding of both specific and categorical information and that children differed from adults in the encoding of both kinds of information in both incidental and intentional encoding conditions. In addition, both children and adults showed congruency effects for pictures and words that were greater for specific than for categorical orienting questions. The results suggest that differences in the encoding of both specific and categorical attribute information contribute to developmental recall differences independently of encoding intent and stimulus modality.     

Notions of Destiny in Women’s Self-Construction

What can women become? How is their becoming fashioned? What forces affect it? What sense do they make of their becoming? In this article the author aims to raise issues which pertain to women and their conceptions of destiny, and to consider these in the light of recent feminist analyses. Three issues are discussed: the ‘good woman’, or the impact of gendered norms and expectations upon women’s destinies; women’s self-construction and the possibility of women envisioning or creating their own destinies; and the becoming of the woman-subject, the desire of women collectively to accomplish their subjectivity as women. The themes of determinism and women’s differences are also considered.     

Active and passive observers' attraction to a self-disclosing other

Active observer (participant) subjects were induced to make either a high or a low intimacy disclosure about themselves to a partner. Their (videotaped confederate) partner then disclosed either intimately or non-intimately in return. The impressions and attributions of these subjects were compared to the predictions of passive observer subjects (non-participants) who were each furnished with the original instructions, heard a tape recording of a different active observer's disclosure, and watched the same videotape of the confederate that person had seen. As expected, both active observers' responses and passive observers' predictions indicated a preference for the intimate partner. In addition, passive observers' attraction predictions were less positive than active observers' reports. But contrary to the hypotheses, passive observers predicted that active observers would attribute the partner's disclosure more to personalistic causes than was actually the case, and guessed inaccurately that active observers would interpret the partner's intimacy as an indicator of attraction. The methodological implications of these active-passive observer differences for research in self-disclosure and relationships are discussed.     

The effects of the stimulus-reinforcer correlation in a discrete-trials IRT>t procedure

The correlation between a keylight and food in a discrete-trials, interresponse-time-greater-than 6-sec (IRT>6-sec) procedure was varied by manipulating the rate of response-independent food presentation in the intertrial interval. When the correlation was positive, the rates of pecking in the IRT>6-sec condition were high and food was obtained on only about 5% of the trials. Likewise, responding was maintained at a high rate in yoked birds that received the same presentations of the light and food as the birds in the IRT>6-sec condition. When the rate of reinforcement between trials was equated to or made greater than the rate of reinforcement within trials, the response rate decreased for all birds, and those decreases were considerably larger for the yoked birds. However, the percentage of trials in which reinforced responses occurred under the IRT>6-sec procedure did not increase substantially when the light and food were either uncorrelated or negatively correlated. The percentage of trials in which a reinforcer was obtained increased when the keylight was left on continuously and the discriminative stimulus was not presented on the key. The results show that the stimulus-reinforcer correlation affects responding in the discrete-trials IRT>6-sec procedure, but that the effects of the stimulus-reinforcer correlation vary as a function of whether reinforcement is response-dependent or response-independent. The differences between the effects of response-independent and response-dependent pairings and nonpairings of the light and food are best accounted for in terms of differences in the control of responding by background stimuli.