Long‐Term Effects of Social Investment: The Case of Partnering in Young Adulthood

ABSTRACT On the basis of the assumptions of the dynamic transactional paradigm, the current study investigates the effects of success and failure of social investment on personality development across young adulthood. Using longitudinal data from the Michigan Study of Adolescent and Adult Life Transitions (MSALT), the authors demonstrate that entering into the first long‐term romantic relationship was accompanied by decreases in facets of neuroticism, thereby fully replicating findings by Neyer and Lehnart (2007) based on a German longitudinal study. In addition, remaining single over 8 years was related to decreasing self‐esteem, especially for men. These results demonstrate long‐term effects of investment and lack of investment in social roles and provide further evidence of the interrelatedness of social or relationship experiences and personality development.     

Mid‐ and Long‐Term Effects of Family Constellation Seminars in a General Population Sample: 8‐ and 12‐Month Follow‐Up

In a previous randomized controlled trial (RCT), short‐term efficacy of family constellation seminars (FCSs) in a general population sample was demonstrated. In this article, we examined mid‐ and long‐term stability of these effects. Participants were 104 adults (M = 47 years; SD = 9; 84% female) who were part of the intervention group in the original RCT (3‐day FCS; 64 active participants and 40 observing participants). FCSs were carried out according to manuals. It was predicted that FCSs would improve psychological functioning (Outcome Questionnaire OQ‐45.2) at 8‐ and 12‐month follow‐up. Additionally, we assessed the effects of FCSs on psychological distress, motivational incongruence, individuals’ experience in their personal social systems, and overall goal attainment. Participants yielded significant improvement in psychological functioning (d = 0.41 at 8‐month follow‐up, p = .000; d = 0.40 at 12‐month follow‐up, p = .000). Results were confirmed for psychological distress, motivational incongruence, the participants’ experience in their personal social systems, and overall goal attainment. No adverse events were reported. This study provides first evidence for the mid‐ and long‐term efficacy of FCSs in a nonclinical population. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Long‐Term Outcomes of Traumatic Brain Injury in Early Childhood

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a leading cause of injury among children, with approximately 15% of children experiencing a TBI prior to 15 years of age. Acutely, mTBI has been associated with a range of cognitive, physical, emotional and behavioural impairments. However, few studies have examined outcomes beyond five years post injury, long before the developmental process is complete and the full extent of any deficits may manifest. Our group had the unique opportunity to use data from a longitudinal birth cohort of 1265 children (Christchurch Health and Development Study) to examine the long term outcomes of early injury (0–5 years). Information about these children, including mTBI events, had been collected at birth, 4 months and at yearly intervals until age 16, and again at ages 18, 21 and 25 years. We found that even after statistical control for a wide range of child and family confounds, children who had been hospitalized for an mTBI had increased inattention/hyperactivity and conduct as rated by mothers and teachers over ages 7–13 years. Increased rates of psychiatric disorders were over 14–16 years for those injured in the preschool, including symptoms consistent with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Odds Ratio = 4.6, Conduct Disorder (CD), Odds Ratio = 5.6 and Substance Abuse (Odds Ratio = 9.1). Over ages 21–25 ongoing behaviour problems were assessed using self‐reported arrests, violent offenses and property offenses. Compared to non‐injured individuals, mTBI groups were more likely to be arrested, involved in property, and violent offences. We controlled for a wide range of factors and there was still clear evidence of ongoing problems for individuals who had experienced a mTBI compared to their non injured counterparts. These findings provide compelling evidence of long term psychosocial and psychiatric outcomes following mTBI.     

Is Veteran Status and Suicide Risk Assessed in Community Long‐Term Care? A Review of the States' Assessment Instruments

Given recent policy initiatives to address suicide risk among older persons and veterans, community‐based elder serving agencies may serve an important role in identifying and referring individuals at risk for suicide. A review of state‐level long‐term assessment instruments was conducted to determine whether veteran status and suicide are assessed. Data from forty‐three state's Units on Aging instruments were content analyzed. Results indicate that over two thirds of the states in this review included questions about suicide and veterans in their assessments, 69.8% and 67.4% respectively. Suicide risk among elders and veterans must be addressed at local, state, and federal levels so that concerted attention and oversight can be provided for matching elders to the services they need.     

Long‐Term Memory Effects of Eye Closure on Children Eyewitness Testimonies

Previous studies conducted on adults and children found that closing the eyes while recalling an event increased memory accuracy for both free and cued recall. One possible explanation to this phenomenon is that eye closure increases the amount of cognitive resources devoted to the task reducing external stimulation, but it is still not clear whether the beneficial effect is only due to a better focus on the task or to a better encoding of the material leading to an advantage over time. In this study, we evaluated the effect of eye closure instruction on children memory accuracy for a short clip in an immediate and delayed recall. We observed that asking participants to close their eyes while performing a memory task helped them to remember more details and that this effect persisted after a time delay. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thoughts of Death and Suicide in Early Adolescence

The prevalence and persistence of thoughts of death and suicide during early adolescence were estimated in a community‐based cohort. A latent class approach was used to identify distinct subgroups based on endorsements to depression items administered repeatedly over 24 months. Two classes emerged, with 75% in a low ideation class across four assessments. Less than 2% persisted in the high ideation class over three or more assessments. African American and Asian American adolescents were more likely than European Americans to belong to the high ideation class. No members of the low ideation class endorsed “thought about killing myself,” while “thoughts of death and dying” was endorsed by members of both classes. Implications for interpreting meanings of death and suicide ideation in early adolescence are discussed.     

Long‐Term Effects of an Extensive Cognitive Training on Personality Development

Previous research found that cognitive training increases the Big Five personality trait Openness to Experience during and some weeks after the intervention. The present study investigated whether long‐term changes happen in Openness to Experience and other personality traits after an extensive cognitive training of memory and perceptual speed. The intervention group consisted of 204 adults (20–31 years and 65–80 years; 50% female) who received daily 1‐hour cognitive training sessions for about 100 days. The control group consisted of 86 adults (21–29 years and 65–82 years; 51% female) who received no cognitive training. All participants answered the NEO Five‐Factor Inventory before and 2 years after the cognitive training. Latent change models were applied that controlled for age group (young vs. old) and gender. In the long run, the cognitive training did not affect changes in any facet of Openness to Experience. This was true for young and old participants as well as for men and women. Instead, the cognitive training lowered the general increase of Conscientiousness. Even an extensive cognitive training on memory and perceptual speed does not serve as a sufficient intervention for enduring changes in Openness to Experiences or one of its facets.     

Determinants and Predictive Value of Clinician Assessment of Short‐Term Suicide Risk

We examine the interrelations among clinicians' judgment of patients' suicide risk, clinicians' emotional responses, and standard risk factors in the short‐term prediction of suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Psychiatric outpatients (n = 153) with a lifetime history of suicide ideation/attempt and their treating clinicians (n = 67) were evaluated at intake. Clinicians completed a standard suicide risk instrument (modified SAD PERSONS scale), a 10‐point Likert scale assessment of judgment of patient suicide risk (Clinician Prediction Scale), and a measure of their emotional responses to the patient (Therapist Response Questionnaire‐Suicide Form). The Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale and the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation were administered at a one‐month follow‐up assessment (n = 114, 74.5%). Clinician judgment of risk significantly predicted suicidal thoughts and behaviors at follow‐up. Both the standard suicide risk instrument and clinician emotional responses contributed independently to the clinician assessment of risk, which, in turn, mediated their relationships with suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Our findings validate the importance of clinical judgment in assessing suicide risk. Clinical judgment appears to be informed both by concrete risk factors and clinicians' emotional responses to suicidal patients, highlighting emotional awareness as a promising area for research and training.     

Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms and Externalizing Behaviors across Adolescence: Associations with Histories of Suicide Attempt and Ideation in Early Adulthood

We examined associations between adolescent problem trajectories and suicide risk outcomes in 361 community participants. Depressive symptoms (self‐report) and externalizing behaviors (parent report) were assessed six times from grades 5 to 10. Parallel process linear growth curves indicated that lifetime suicide attempt history assessed to age 25 was associated with higher intercept (grade 5) and slope (increases from grades 5 to 10) of depressive symptoms and higher slope of externalizing behaviors. Both problem intercepts predicted suicidal ideation at ages 18 to 25 years. Adolescent depressive and externalizing symptom trajectories showed independent associations with suicide risk. Preventive intervention that occurs prior to the developmental period in which suicidal thoughts and behaviors show peak prevalence is expected to prevent suicide.     

Suicide Crisis Syndrome Mediates the Relationship Between Long‐term Risk Factors and Lifetime Suicidal Phenomena

In recent years, there has been growing attention to the distinction between acute and long‐term suicidal risk factors. We have previously characterized an acute, negative affect state, termed the suicide crisis syndrome (SCS ), as a marker of near‐term suicidal risk. Here, we test whether documented long‐term risk factors (i.e., trait vulnerabilities), including perfectionism, impulsivity, chronic substance abuse, insecure attachment, poor social support, and childhood trauma, associate to suicidal phenomena through a pathway of the SCS . A sample of 207 psychiatric inpatients were administered a battery of eight scales, including the Suicide Trigger Scale (STS ‐3) as a measure of the SCS . While both STS ‐3 and all trait vulnerabilities were associated with lifetime suicidal ideation and attempts, only STS ‐3 was related to pre‐admission suicide attempts. The STS ‐3 significantly mediated the effect of each trait vulnerability on lifetime suicidal phenomena (combining ideation and behavior), with the proportion of mediating effect ranging from .29 to .56. Reverse mediation analyses were only significant for insecure attachment, supporting a largely unidirectional mediation effect. The SCS appears to serve as an acute risk factor for suicidal behavior in psychiatric inpatients and may act as a mechanism by which long‐term risk factors increase suicidal risk.     

Age-Related Differences in the Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood and Links with Family Relationships

This study examined differences on major aspects of attaining adult status in the transition from adolescence into young adulthood. The attainment of developmental tasks and the quality of parent–child relationships were compared across adolescence and young adulthood. In addition, the extent to which relationships with parents are related to the attainment of young adulthood developmental tasks was also investigated. The study was conducted on 169 Israeli adolescents, early young adults, and late young adults. Results showed that developmental tasks are attained at different stages, and that the consolidation of adult status is achieved closer to the end of the third decade of life. Relationships with parents were found to be more positive following the transition from adolescence to early young adulthood. Adaptation of young adults was explained by the quality of relationships with parents and especially with fathers.     

Areas of Marital Dissatisfaction Among Long‐Term Couples

To better understand relational dissatisfaction and duration of long‐term married couples, this study surveyed 30 couples married at least 40 years with the Marital Satisfaction Inventory. Findings suggest various areas of dissatisfaction (e.g., affective communication, conflict over child rearing) and relationship among and link to other areas of dissatisfaction (e.g., finances, sex).     

The Longitudinal Association of Being Bullied and Gender with Suicide Ideations,Self‐Harm,and Suicide Attempts from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A Cohort Study

Longitudinal associations between being bullied during adolescence and suicide ideations, self‐harm, and suicide attempts into young adulthood were examined. A large representative sample was examined in 1998 (N  = 2,464, MA 13.7), 1999/2000, and 2012 to reassess the outcome measures. At all ages, bullied participants showed more suicide ideation, self‐harm, and suicide attempts, regardless of gender. Bullied females showed a decrease in suicide ideation from adolescence to adulthood, while bullied males showed an increase in suicide attempts in the same time period. Being bullied in adolescence strongly predicts suicidal behavior and self‐harm. Preventive efforts might reduce the risk of later suicidality.     

The Development of Marijuana Dealing Behavior During Adolescence and Early Adulthood Among Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors for Development

ABSTRACT

Despite the amount of attention paid to marijuana use, there has yet to be any research that examines heterogeneity in the development of marijuana dealing behavior across time. This research used group-based trajectory modeling to elucidate developmental trends in this behavior and examines how risk factors may predict heterogeneity in marijuana dealing among a sample of juvenile offenders. The Pathways to Desistance data set, a sample of 1,354 juvenile offenders followed across 84 months during adolescence and early adulthood following a recent adjudication, was utilized in analyses. Results indicate that a five-group model best fits the data. Results indicate that higher baseline resistance to peer influence was associated with increased risk of assignment to the Accelerating and High Chronic groups, whereas baseline marijuana use was associated with assignment to the Accelerating, Desisting, and High Chronic groups when all covariates were included in estimation. This indicates that juvenile offenders may be at risk for dealing marijuana during adolescence and use of the drug and low susceptibility to peer influence may indicate higher risk for engagement.     

Perceived Burdensomeness Predicts Outcomes of Short‐Term Psychological Treatment of Young People at Risk of Suicide

The interpersonal‐psychological theory of suicide (IPTS; Joiner, 2005 ) provides a model for understanding the mechanisms underlying suicide risk, but there is limited research measuring change in the constructs over the course of treatment. This study aimed to test whether changes in perceived burdensomeness (PB) and thwarted belongingness (TB) mediated the effects of changes in depression and hopelessness on suicide risk. The sample comprised 226 Australian young people (aged 12–24; 67.7% female; 5.7% Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) receiving short‐term psychological treatment for suicide‐related behaviors. Change scores over the course of therapy were generated using admission and discharge measures of PB, TB, depression, hopelessness, and suicide risk. Results revealed partial support for the theory. The relationship between changes in depression and hopelessness on suicide risk was fully mediated by changes in PB. However, changes in TB did not mediate these relationships. This study offers encouragement for the potential use of the IPTS in the context of psychological treatment of young people. Assessment of the IPTS constructs may be helpful in assessing change in suicide risk and further assist in treatment.     

A Positive Psychology Intervention Among Long‐Term Unemployed People and Its Effects on Psychological Distress and Well‐Being

The present study aims to examine the effect of a positive psychology intervention (PPI) on a population of long‐term unemployed people. All were members of an association of employment assistance. An opportunity was offered to participate in a PPI. Twelve participants accepted (treatment condition). The remaining participants constituted the control group. Participants of the treatment condition were asked to complete 5 positive psychology exercises during 2 weeks. Participants of the control condition participated as usual in sessions to help their job search. Results indicate that PPI significantly decreases psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) and significantly increases well‐being (e.g., life satisfaction, self‐esteem).