The visual metacognition questionnaire: a measure of intuitions about vision

Recent research has revealed a series of striking limits to visual perception. One important aspect of these demonstrations is the degree to which they conflict with intuition; people often believe that they will be able to see things that experiments demonstrate they cannot see. This metacognitive error has been explored with reference to a few specific visual limits, but no study has yet explored people's intuitions about vision more generally. In this article we present the results of a broad survey of these intuitions. Results replicate previous overestimates and underestimates of visual performance and document new misestimates of performance in tasks that assess inattention blindness and visual knowledge. We also completed an initial exploratory factor analysis of the items and found that estimates of visual performance for well-structured information tend to covary. These results represent an important initial step in organizing the intuitions that may prove important in a variety of settings, including performance of complex visual tasks, evaluation of others people's visual experience, and even the teaching of psychology.     

Linking questionnaire reports and observer ratings of young couples' hostility and support

Past studies have correlated observer ratings with questionnaire self- and partner-reports of behaviors in close relationships. However, few studies have actually proposed and tested longitudinal models that link observer ratings to past behaviors and to questionnaire self- and partner-reports of behaviors during an observational task. Using data from a panel of 324 young couples, we demonstrate that (a) observer ratings of hostility and support are significantly related to couple reports of the same behavior in the relationship two years earlier, and (b) respondent and partner questionnaire reports of hostility and support during the observational task converge with observer ratings of the same behavior even after controlling for earlier self- and partner-reports. These findings demonstrate that observer reports based on brief discussion tasks reflect the tenor of the relationship over a relatively long period of time. They also demonstrate that couple reports of interactions reflect observable behaviors beyond that attributed to earlier self- and partner-reports. Consistent with previous research, effect sizes are larger for hostility than support but there are few differences between men and women.     

Countertransference as a prototype: The development of a measure

Countertransference is a concept that is widely acknowledged, but there exists little definitional consensus, making research in the area difficult. The authors adopted a prototype theory (E. H. Rosch, 1973a, 1973b; see C. B. Mervis & E. Rosch, 1981, for a review) to examine this construct because it conceptually fits well with constructs that elude explicit definition. In Study 1, 45 experienced psychologists highly agreed with the prototypicality of 104 different examples of countertransference providing support for the presence of a prototype. In Study 2, the usage of this prototype in a sample of 35 trainees was related to ability to perceive countertransference in a case example drawn from the literature and positively correlated with self-reports of their experiences of countertransference but not with their self-reported ability to manage countertransference once it was manifest. Implications for training and research are discussed.     

The development of a trait measure of ruminative thought

A 9-item questionnaire was designed to measure rumination. This questionnaire measures three distinct facets of rumination: emotionality, motivation, and distraction. Together, these factors measure the extent to which people engage in thoughts regarding their progress toward their goals. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis of an initial 28 items was used to reveal the underlying structure of the rumination construct. In Study 2, a confirmatory factor analysis revealed support for the hypothesized factor structure proposed by Study 1. Following the suggestions of PROC CALIS (SAS) for model modification, an acceptable model was found that retained 9 items (3 on each factor). Studies 3 and 4 demonstrate the predictive validity of the rumination inventory. Study 3 provides evidence of a correlation between distraction by ruminative thoughts and low scores on a statistics examination. Study 4 shows a negative correlation between distraction by ruminative thoughts and time taken to learn to solve a geometric puzzle.     

The development and validation of a measure of character: The CIVIC

The present research study sought to develop and validate a character scale – the Comprehensive Inventory of Virtuous Instantiations of Character using a total sample size of 3679 across five studies. In Study 1, character trait items were generated using an integrative classification system. In Study 2, character trait scales were further refined and their factor structure examined, revealing eight higher-order character dimensions or character cores: appreciation, intellectual engagement, fortitude, interpersonal consideration, sincerity, temperance, transcendence, and empathy. Study 3 established convergent validity of character traits with extant measures and discriminability from personality facets, social desirability, and moral cognitive development. Study 4 revealed that character cores were more strongly related to evaluative constructs than personality dimensions. Study 5 demonstrated that character cores predicted performance and psychological well-being outcomes above and beyond personality. The implications of our findings for the assessment and taxonomy of character are discussed.     

The development and evaluation of a computer-administered measure of cognitive complexity

The present study presents and evaluates the Computer-Administered Rep Test (CART). The CART is a micro computer program that automates both the administration and scoring of a repertory grid based measure of cognitive complexity. Preliminary evaluation of the CART indicates that it provides a useful alternative to traditional paper-and-pencil administered repertory grid measures of cognitive complexity. We also examine the effect of an alternative scoring approach on the reliability of scores derived from role repertory grid measures of cognitive complexity. Results indicate that this scoring approach substantially enhances the reliability of cognitive complexity scores derived from both the paper-and-pencil and computer-administered measures.     

The development of the menstrual symptom questionnaire

The literature has suggested that there are two separate types of primary dysmenorrhea with different physiological bases and different reported symptomatology. The purpose of this study was to construct a questionnaire based on suggestions from Dalton's (1969) theory of congestive and spasmodic types of primary dysmenorrhea, to obtain test-retest reliabilities of items, and to factor analyze the instrument to empirically investigate the two-type theory. The first set of 51 items had mean test-retest reliabilities of 0.76 and yielded two clearly distinct factors in support of the two-type hypothesis. When items with factor loadings less than ±0.35 were discarded, 25 items remained. The mean test-retest reliabilities of these items was 0.78. Again, two clearly distinct factors emerged defining congestive and spasmodic dysmenorrhea consistent with the literature. The retained items from the first questionnaire and the items from the second questionnaire loaded on the same factors both times. It was concluded that two types of dysmenorrhea do, in fact, exist and that this study has provided a reliable means of differentiating them. From a therapeutic standpoint, accurate diagnosis of type may be a prerequisite for prescribing appropriate treatment.     

Development of a questionnaire to measure concern for dental appearance.

100 adults, selected for cosmetic dental treatment in a general dental practice, completed a 42-item questionnaire designed, on the basis of previous research and the author's clinical experience, to measure concern for dental appearance. This had high internal consistency and was reduced to a questionnaire of 23 items with internal consistency shown by a standardised Cronbach alpha of .84. An exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation identified six factors, the main one appearing to be a measure of concern for dental appearance. The high internal consistency suggests that the total score for the revised questionnaire is a measure of a construct, concern for dental appearance. Although the simplest measure of that may be contained in the items for the first factor, a much larger sample would be necessary to confirm the complex factor structure and so the questionnaire's total score is probably the more reliable measure at present. A study is summarised showing that the total score provides a measure that, in statistical regression analysis, may predict the intentions of adults to take care of the appearance of their teeth.     

An interview to measure vital exhaustion. I. development and comparison with the maastricht questionnaire

Abstract

This article presents an interview designed to measure vital exhaustion (VE), a state characterized by unusual fatigue, increased irritability and feelings of demoralization, which has been found to be a short-term risk indicator of myocardial infarction (MI). This state can be measured by means of the Maastricht Questionnaire (MQ). However, the MQ was found to have some major shortcomings for the selection of subjects for laboratory or clinical investigations. For this reason we designed an interview to assess VE. To test the hypothesis that the interview registers prodromal feelings of MI, the interview was administered to a sample of 81 males who were hospitalized because of a first myocardial infarction (mean age 55.6 years; sd 6.8) and a sample of 168 healthy males (mean age 54.9 years; sd 6.9). Mean scores of cases and controls differed significantly (7.8; sd 6.0 and 3.6; sd 4.0, respectively; t=5.65; p=.000). Mean scores on the questionnaire discriminated significantly too, but the discriminating power was much lower (t=2.31; p=.02). The article gives detailed instructions on the way in which the interview should be administered and scored.     

The development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of dissociative activities

The psychometric properties of a new measure of dissociative behaviors, the Scale of Dissociative Activities (SODAS), were evaluated. Undergraduates (n = 533) completed the SODAS, 2 other established self-report measures of dissociative behaviors, and a measure of socially desirable responding. A randomly selected subset of participants (n = 100) also participated in an additional reliability and validity follow-up study. The SODAS was found to be internally consistent (a =.95) and temporally stable (r =.77) over an average 38-day interval. The validity of the SODAS was established by a moderately low negative correlation with social desirability, high correlations with other self-report measures of dissociation, and moderate to high correlations with samples of dissociative activities assessed in naturalistic environments with experience sampling methodology. Overall, the SODAS compared favorably to other existing self-report measures of dissociative behaviors. Directions for future research on the SODAS are discussed.     

The physical self-attribute questionnaire: development and initial validation

The Physical Self-attribute Questionnaire was developed for use in conjunction with the Physical Self-perception Profile to model cognitive facets of perceived competence, certainty, importance, and discrepancy from ideal to each of the physical subdomains measured by the latter (Strength, Attractive Body, Condition, and Sport). To this end, two studies were conducted. Study 1 examined the factor structure, test-retest reliability, and validity of the questionnaire in a sample of 154 (28 men, 126 women) undergraduate health students. Reliability and validity were acceptable, and confirmatory factor analysis indicated good fit for a four-factor solution. In Study 2, the reliability, validity, and factor structure was again confirmed in a sample of 120 (83 men, 37 women) undergraduate students recruited from exercise classes. Results of these two studies suggest that the Physical Self-attribute Questionnaire is a viable tool to measure the underlying cognitive facets of subdomain-specific physical self-esteem.     

The cardiac anxiety questionnaire: development and preliminary validity

Heart-focused anxiety (HFA) is the fear of cardiac-related stimuli and sensations because of their perceived negative consequences. Although HFA is common to a wide variety of persons who experience chest pain and distress, it often is unrecognized and misdiagnosed, particularly in cardiology and emergency room patients without and with heart disease. To address these concerns, this article reports on the development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of the Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire (CAQ) designed to measure HFA. In Study 1, 188 cardiology patients completed the CAQ. Item and factor analyses indicated a three-factor solution pertaining to heart-related fear, avoidance, and attention. Reliability analysis of the 18-item CAQ revealed good internal consistency of the total and subscale scores. In Study 2, 42 patients completed the CAQ and several other anxiety-related questionnaires to assess its convergent and divergent properties. Although preliminary validity results are promising, further psychometric study is necessary to cross-validate the CAQ, examine its test-retest reliability, and confirm the stability of the factor structure. Taken together, the CAQ appears to assess HFA, and may therefore be a useful instrument for identifying patients with elevated HFA without and with heart disease.     

The assessment of anger and hostility: a critical review

While the emotion of anger has become an increasingly important part of clinical assessment, the theoretical and psychometric adequacy of the instruments used to assess anger and hostility have long been questioned. In the present review, we first provide definitions of anger and hostility in order to provide a theoretical context from which to evaluate the scope of current measures of these constructs. Second, we review the major self-report scales used to assess anger and hostility in light of these definitions and provide a detailed evaluation of psychometric evidence concerning their reliability and validity. Finally, we offer specific recommendations concerning how anger and hostility assessment instruments can be improved and expanded. In particular, we note the need for (a) an expansion of anger assessment methods beyond traditional endorsement approaches, (b) scales to assess specific domains of anger experience, (c) scales that assess unique content domains of anger experience and expressions, such as spouse-specific or driving-related anger scales, and (d) scales that assess the clinical aspects of the anger construct.     

The development of a measure of enculturation for Native American youth

Enculturation is the process by which individuals learn about and identify with their ethnic minority culture. It is distinguished from acculturation which refers to the process by which an ethnic minority individual is assimilated into the majority culture. Three studies with Native American youths are reported that describe the development of a measure of enculturation for Native American youths. Development of a measure of enculturation provides a foundation upon which to build a body of literature that focuses on strengths in a youth's life rather than on deficits. Results of the first study (n=120), a confirmatory factor analysis, indicated that cultural affinity, Native American identity, and family involvement in traditional activities adequately represent the construct of enculturation. The study also provides some convergent validity for this interpretation. The second study examines factor invariance for enculturation among youths with data from over 2 years (n=69). The factor structure was similar across time. The third study replicates the factor structure and validity analyses with a new sample (n=42). Usefulness of the measure for assessing protective factors and stressing ethnicity over simple assessment of race categories is discussed. We would like to thank the Tribe that participated in this study and especially the youth and their parents who agreed to participate. We would also like to thank the Tribal staff youth workers who helped us on many aspects of the study. This research was supported by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, Grant No. 1 H86 SPO1835-01A1 to the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa/Chippewa Indians. Benjamin Walter and Kathleen Washienko were research assistants on the project during data collection at Time 1. Sandra Dyer was the Director for the project upon which this study is based at the time of data collection.     

The development of a scale to measure cognitive distortions in bulimia

The Bulimia Cognitive Distortions Scale (BCDS) was developed to measure irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions associated with bulimia. The final 25-item scale was found to have excellent internal consistency with high item to total correlations and a coefficient alpha of .97. Factor analysis revealed two clear factors measuring cognitive distortions related to automatic eating behaviors and to physical appearance. Data attesting to the convergent and divergent validity of the BCDS are also presented. With 110 subjects (55 bulimics, 55 controls), a discriminant analysis revealed the BCDS to be the only significant variable in predicting group membership, correctly classifying 93.6% of all subjects. The BCDS was also predictive of severity of bulimia as measured by the frequency of binge eating episodes. The potential of the BCDS as both a diagnostic and research instrument is discussed.