PROBLEM SOLVING AND THE AWARENESS OF THE MISSING PART

R aaheim , K. Problem solving and the awareness of the missing part. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 129–131.—When university students were asked to solve the so-called Pea Problem, with the added instruction of first looking for the missing instrumental part, solutions were not more frequent than without this addition, although the latter may have led to a greater awareness of the reason for choosing the correct line of attack.     

通过样例和问题解决建立产生式

我们对学生通过例题和问题学习学科知识的问题作了一些实验研究。本文介绍了其中的一项研究结果。结果表明:学生以这种形式进行学习,只要例题和问题安排得合适,学生能较快地和较好地掌握有关知识。学生不仅学会了解决问题,而且能从中总结出某些解题策略和启发式规则,并能调用新建立的启发式规则指导解题,从而加速了解题的进程。 本文还讨论了学生在这种学习情境中的学习过程。依据本实验所揭示的人对符号产生式建立的一般过程和有效的训练示例,为计算机摸拟人的学习提供了某些依据。     

大学生合作学习的问题解决过程及其对问题解决水平的影响

以认知风格为依据,将合作学习小组分为场依存同质组、场独立同质组以及异质组。通过小组对开放问题以及逻辑问题的解决,考察不同认知风格个体、不同类型小组的问题解决过程。同时考察问题解决过程对问题解决水平的影响。结果表明：（1）个体在解决不同类型问题时的过程体验不同。（2）问题解决过程在个体的认知风格和逻辑问题解决水平之间起调节作用。（3）不同类型小组的问题解决过程不同。（4）合作是影响小组合作学习效果的重要因素之一。     

SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF LOGICAL OMNISCIENCE

This paper looks at three ways of addressing probabilism's implausible requirement of logical omniscience. The first and most common strategy says it's okay to require an ideally rational person to be logically omniscient. I argue that this view is indefensible on any interpretation of ‘ideally rational’. The second strategy says probabilism should be formulated not in terms of logically possible worlds but in terms of doxastically possible worlds, ways you think the world might be. I argue that, on the interpretation of this approach that lifts the requirement of certainty in all logical truths, the view becomes vacuous, issuing no requirements on rational believers at all. Finally, I develop and endorse a new solution to the problem. This view proposes dynamic norms for reasoning with credences. The solution is based on an old proposal of Ian Hacking's that says you're required to be sensitive to logical facts only when you know they are logical facts.     

PROBLEM SOLVING,PLANNING AND PERSONALITY*

The present study was designed to investigate student behaviour in a river-crossing problem in light of prior experience, intelligence, personality, mode of presentation and age. Ninety-six students at Year 6 and 61 students at Year 8 from schools in Australia were administered the Eysenck Junior EPQ and IVE scales, together with six cognitive tasks used to index the Luria successive and simultaneous processing and planning functional units. Each student was given a river-crossing problem presented in one of two modes and at one of two levels of difficulty. Success on the river-crossing problem was found to be independent of age, mode of presentation or prior experience on the task. There was a significant effect due to problem awareness, intelligence and empathy and a mode by success interaction. An attempt was made to group students into problem-solver ‘types’. The results were discussed in terms of the link between cognitive and affective variables and intervention programmes.     

PROBLEM SOLVING TO PREVENT WORK INJURIES IN SUPPORTED EMPLOYMENT

A problem-solving strategy was used to teach three groups of 3 individuals in supported employment how to prevent work-related injuries. The problem-solving strategy was taught in two training phases. The first training phase involved the use of cue cards, and the second involved the withdrawal of the cue cards. Interviews and staged generalization assessments in the participants' natural work environments were conducted before, during, and up to 12 weeks after training. In these assessments, situations were presented that were either similar or dissimilar to situations presented in training. Results of both the interviews and staged assessments indicated that the participants' newly acquired problem-solving skills generalized to similar and dissimilar situations.     

顿悟问题解决的心理机制的验证性研究

目前顿悟问题解决的心理机制主要存在两个有争议性的理论：进程监控理论和表征变化理论。现以非限制性的停车场问题为实验材料,检验顿悟问题解决的这两个心理机制。结果发现：（1）进程监控理论可解释顿悟被试的成绩优劣;（2）表征变化理论可对顿悟问题能否解决做出解释。     

换位棋问题规则的表征与解题正确率间关系的研究

本研究通过对被试求解换位棋过程的记录与分析,重点研究了问题表征在换位棋求解过程中的作用。实验结果表明：（1）正确表征问题规则是解题的必要前提.对问题规则信息的误解和遗漏,是影响解题正确率的重要因素。其中对非隐含问题规则的错误表征也占全部错误表征的很大比率。（2）“关键结构”的发现是解决换位棋的必要条件,对问题规则的错误表征影响“关键结构”的发现.（3）前置问题的解决经验对目标问题的正确表征无显著的影响作用。     

DIVERGENT PROBLEM SOLVING

On compare les performances d'adolescents hindous (N = 70) et américains (N = 94) habitant des bourgs agricoles, dans deux épreuves de créativité (divergent thinking). Les résultats montrent que les sujets américains donnent plus de réponses nouvelles aux problèmes, tandis que les Hindous répondent de façon routinière, ce qui ne convient pas aux tâches proposées. On peut interpréter ces différences de deux manières: ou bien c'est l'environnement pris globalement qui entraîne une capacité différentielle à penser de façon créatrice; ou bien il s'agit d'une influence spécifique de la maison et de l'école. Une réplique partielle de la première étude a été réalisée à New Delhi (Inde): le milieu urbain présente des ressemblances avec l'environnement global des adolescents américains, tout en conservant les traditions hindoues en matière d'habitat et d'école. Les résultats sont en faveur de l'hypothèse selon laquelle ce sont les différences dans l'environnement global qui influent sur la créativité.     

解题策略的同质性和线性逻辑斯谛模型的拟合

为探讨线性逻辑斯谛模型（ＬＬＴＭ）的拟合条件及其和解题策略同质性之间的关系,让被试比较两个负整数指数幂的大小,发现全体被试的数据不能与拉希模型及ＬＬＴＭ相拟合。把被试按其解题策略分成不同策略组后,同一策略组被试的数据可以拟合于拉希模型,但对于ＬＬＴＭ,同一策略组的数据中部分项目的拟合较好,另外一些项目的拟合较差。这一结果表明,解题策略的同质性是ＬＬＴＭ拟合的必要条件,但还不是充分条件。     

客体投影方式对空间问题解决和再认的影响

通过设置四种实验条件,旨在阐明空间问题解决和再认的水平是如何受到客体不同投影方式的影响。除进一步支持了正投影问题的解决是以一个具有三维结构特性的心理表征为基础而并非是对二维正投影信息进行了充分识别的观点外,研究结果还表明：（１）这个具有客体三维结构特性的心理表征是建构于对正投影问题解决而非轴测投影图的再认过程中;（２）正投影问题解决的复杂性显著地高于轴测投影图问题解决而且一个建构于正投影问题解决中     

THE ROLES OF RECOGNITION PROCESSES AND LOOK-AHEAD SEARCH IN TIME-CONSTRAINED EXPERT PROBLEM SOLVING:

Abstract— Chess has long served as an important standard task environment for research on human memory and problem-solving abilities and processes In this article, we report evidence on the relative importance of recognition processes and planning (look-ahead) processes in very high level expert performance in chess The data show that the rated skill of a top-level grand master is only slightly lower when he is playing simultaneously against a half-dozen grand-master opponents than under tournament conditions that allow much more time for each move As simultaneous play allows little time for look-ahead processes, the data indicate that recognition, based on superior chess knowledge, plays a much larger part in high-level skill in this task than does planning by looking ahead.     

不同概化的问题原型对问题归类和解决的影响

探讨原理学习过程中形成不同概化程度／问题原型对解决不同适宜程度问题的影响。实验1探讨个体形成不同概化程度问题原型对解决表面内容不同适宜程度的问题的效果;实验2探讨形成不同概化程度问题原型的被试解决问题的信息加工方式与机制;实验3进一步探讨形成不同概化程度问题原型的个体解决复杂问题的效果与机制。结果表明：(1)形成概化程度较高的问题原型有利于个体对表面内容不适宜题目的解答;(2)形成概化程度较高问题原型的被试在解答适宜或不适宜问题时均能迅速激活问题原型而通达原理图式,因此,更多地采用图式的方法解决问题;(3)形成概化程度较高的问题原型会有助于被试排除题目的无关信息,正确进行解答。     

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF SEX AND SEX ROLE TO THE ABILITY TO DECODE NONVERBAL CUES

This paper reports an investigation of the ability to decode nonverbal cues. Past studies of decoding have often tested for differences in ability between males and females. Results do not consistently favor the ability of one sex over the other, but, when differences do appear, they indicate greater sensitivity for females. Researchers in the area of sex differences in human communication emphasize that variability may be related to sex roles. With regard to nonverbal sensitivity, researchers have suggested that femininity may be associated with better nonverbal decoding because of practice gained in traditionally feminine occupations. It has also been reasoned that certain traits, such as submissiveness and expressiveness, are linked to both femininity and nonverbal sensitivity. The present study investigates the relationship of sex, sex role, and nonverbal sensitivity. Whereas female sex was found to be positively associated with nonverbal ability, femininity was negatively related. Several interpretations of this surprising result are offered.     

数学学习不良儿童视觉-空间表征与数学问题解决

采用临床访谈的方法,考察了30名数学学习不良(MD)儿童和31名一般儿童的数学问题解决、视觉-空间表征策略和空间视觉化能力。结果发现：图式表征能促进数学问题的解决,图像表征则起妨碍作用;空间视觉化能力与解题正确率及图式表征策略有显著正相关,与图像表征策略有显著负相关。MD儿童的解题正确率以及使用图式表征策略的程度显著低于一般儿童,使用图像表征策略的程度则显著高于一般儿童。在解题正确率和图式表征策略这两个变量上,MD儿童和一般儿童的年级发展趋势相同,都随年级的升高而提高。但在图像表征策略的使用上,一般儿童有随年级的升高而下降的趋势,MD儿童却没有下降的趋势。两类儿童的空间视觉化能力都随年级的升高而提高。     

个体解决三项系列问题的心理模型

该研究设计了2种实验条件,对360名6-19岁个体解决三项系列问题的能力发展进行了研究,旨在讨论个体解决三项系列问题的心理模型的发展问题,结果表明：(1)6-19岁个体对三项系列问题中有必然逻辑答案的题目的判断能力的发展速度比较平稳;(2)个体对三项系列问题中有必然逻辑答案的题目的判断能力先于对没有逻辑答案的题目,6-9岁个体对三项系列问题中没有必然逻辑答案的题目的判断能力的发展速度低于10岁以后的个体;(3)空间模型、语义模型、语义一空间混合模型和枢纽项比较模型是相互补充的,是在不同认知发展阶段依一定次序,按一定的阶段逐渐形成的,经历了5个不同的发展阶段,最终形成以枢纽项比较模型为核心、四种心理模型并存于个体的心理结构之中的复合模型。