Are psychological studies of religion on the right track?

Researchers in psychology of religion in America and Britain have inherited the theoretical and research traditions established by W. James, S. Freud and J. Dittes. New nomothetic or theoretical frameworks have been called for in order to organize a plethora of idiographic data. A response to the call has been slow, but Paul Pruyser designated at least six areas in which the development of psychology of religion might most fruitfully occur; and the suggestion has been that altered states of consciousness research is perhaps the most important item of all six to consider for research methodology. This particular item, it was broadly suggested, may possibly serve as a bridge between East and West, thereby bringing psychologists of religion out of the darkness of Western methodological ethnocentrism, and into the light of cross-cultural, universally-applicable concerns sought in the spirit of the scientific study of religion. Psychologists of religion must rely on the tradition of Religion-swissenschaft for much of the ‘non-reducible’ data they study. Although the preponderence of general activity in the field is occurring in America, little attention along these lines is evident there. In Britain, the discipline is floundering. Yet, in spite of its quandaries, recognition of the need to encounter Eastern psychologies and religions, perhaps by means of the ‘bridge’ of altered states of consciousness research, appears to be more clearly stated in Britain (though infrequent, often obscure) than it has been elsewhere.     

Are we pushing the limits of public health interventions for smoking cessation?

The phenomenon of smoking cessation that takes place outside formal programs, which serve a small proportion of smokers, is an important public health issue. Self-help strategies represent an approach to potentially cost-effective smoking intervention that can be conveniently used by large groups of smokers. In this issue of Health Psychology, Gritz, Berman, Bastani, and Wu (1992) demonstrate that the mailing of self-help smoking cessation materials to nonvolunteer women in a health maintenance organization, without any personal contact, produces little behavior change beyond what occurs in the environment without such distribution. This outcome is not surprising and does not illiminate the possibility of efficacious use of self-help materials with a nonvolunteer population. An essential question is: Could these materials have been distributed in such a way as to increase their use and eventual efficacy? Efforts to attract more smokers to use existing materials are an essential element of self-help strategies. An effective public health approach is a comprehensive one that successfully engages the individual and, through multiple channels in the community, provides reinforcement, supports, and norms for not smoking.     

Are there biological programming effects for psychological development? Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees

Associations between experiences and outcomes could be due to (a) continuation of adversity or (b) organismic changes, including experience-expectant and experience-adaptive developmental programming. The adoption into British families of children who had been reared in profoundly depriving institutions in Romania presented an opportunity to test mechanisms. Romanian children reared from infancy in very depriving institutions for periods up to 42 months were compared with 52 nondeprived UK-born children placed into adoptive families before the age of 6 months. The results at 6 years of age showed substantial normal cognitive and social functioning after the provision of family rearing but also major persistent deficits in a substantial minority. The pattern of findings suggests some form of early biological programming or neural damage stemming from institutional deprivation, but the heterogeneity in outcome indicates that the effects are not deterministic.     

Are conditioned stimuli determinants of oriented exploratory behavior in the rat?

To test Bindra and Palfai's hypothesis about enhancing and inhibitory motivational effects of a conditioned stimulus on exploratory behavior, rats in a first experiment were submitted to pairings of a tone with (a) water, (b) intermittent deliveries of water after a period of constant pairing. In a control condition, the tone was presented alone. The tone was subsequently presented during oriented exploration of a novel stimulus, in the conditioning context. There was no difference in exploratory performance between conditions. In a second experiment with another kind of stimulus change and a larger number of training trials, exploration did not increase when occurring during CS presentation. The lack of facilitation which is possibly the product of competition between exploration and magazine-directed responses, can also be interpreted as indicating that the effects of a conditioned stimulus are reinforcer specific and that the diffuse activity it generates in a situation different from the training one is not equivalent, as concerns the processes involved, to oriented exploratory behavior.     

Are apes essentialists? Scope and limits of psychological essentialism in great apes

Human reasoning is characterized by psychological essentialism (Gelman in The essential child: origins of essentialism in everyday thought. Oxford University Press, New York, 2003): when reasoning about objects, we distinguish between deep essential properties defining the object’s kind and identity, and merely superficial features that can be changed without altering the object’s identity. To date, it is unclear whether psychological essentialism is based on the acquisition of linguistic means (such as kind terms) and therefore uniquely human, or whether it is a more fundamental cognitive capacity which might be present also in the absence of language. In the present study, we addressed this question by testing whether, and if so, under which circumstances non-human apes also rely on psychological essentialism to identify objects. For this purpose, we adapted classical verbal transformation scenarios used in research on psychological essentialism (Keil in Concepts, kinds, and cognitive development. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1989) and implemented them in two nonverbal tasks: first, a box task, typically used to test object individuation (Experiment 1), and second, an object choice task, typically used to test object discrimination, object preferences and logical inferences (Experiments 2–4). Taken together, the results of the four experiments suggest that under suitable circumstances (when memory and other task demands are minimized), great apes engage in basic forms of essentialist reasoning. Psychological essentialism is thus possible also in the absence of language.     

Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability?

Adult musician's brains show structural enlargements, but it is not known whether these are inborn or a consequence of long-term training. In addition, music training in childhood has been shown to have positive effects on visual-spatial and verbal outcomes. However, it is not known whether pre-existing advantages in these skills are found in children who choose to study a musical instrument nor is it known whether there are pre-existing associations between music and any of these outcome measures that could help explain the training effects. To answer these questions, we compared 5- to 7-year-olds beginning piano or string lessons (n=39) with 5- to 7-year-olds not beginning instrumental training (n=31). All children received a series of tests (visual-spatial, non-verbal reasoning, verbal, motor, and musical) and underwent magnetic resonance imaging. We found no pre-existing neural, cognitive, motor, or musical differences between groups and no correlations (after correction for multiple analyses) between music perceptual skills and any brain or visual-spatial measures. However, correlations were found between music perceptual skills and both non-verbal reasoning and phonemic awareness. Such pre-existing correlations suggest similarities in auditory and visual pattern recognition as well a sharing of the neural substrates for language and music processing, most likely due to innate abilities or implicit learning during early development. This baseline study lays the groundwork for an ongoing longitudinal study addressing the effects of intensive musical training on brain and cognitive development, and making it possible to look retroactively at the brain and cognitive development of those children who emerge showing exceptional musical talent.     

Why do individuals respond to fraudulent scam communications and lose money? The psychological determinants of scam compliance

Why do so many people all over the world, so often, react to completely worthless scam offers? In two questionnaire studies, one of which included the distribution of an experimentally manipulated simulated scam, we investigated differences between respondents who did and did not report past compliance with scams. We found that the principal differences were in their response to very high‐value incentives, in the extent to which they reacted with positive emotions to the thought of winning a large prize, in their reliance on signs of official authority, and in their self‐confidence. The first two of these can be regarded as forms of visceral processing. Some of these differences suggested a dispositional difference between victims and non‐victims.     

Are community studies of psychological trauma's impact accurate? A study among Jews and Palestinians

We evaluated the accuracy of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression (MD) diagnoses using brief assessment instruments conducted by phone. PTSD and MD were assessed by telephone interview in a randomly selected sample of Jewish and Palestinian residents of Jerusalem (N = 150) during a period of marked threat of terrorism and war. We utilized the PTSD Symptom Scale Interview Format (Foa, Riggs, Dancu, & Rothbaum, 1993) and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke, Spitzer, & Williams, 2001). We then conducted in-depth, in-person interviews within 2 weeks, assessing PTSD and MD using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI; Kessler et al., 2004). The prevalence of PTSD and MD diagnosis ascertained by the 2 assessment modalities was similar. Indices of classification accuracy for the phone interview, using the in-person interview as the standard, ranged from modest to high. Brief phone and in-depth in-person measures of PTSD and MD also correlated similarly with other demographic, stress, and coping factors, suggesting convergent validity. Brief phone interviews appear useful for estimating the prevalence of psychological disorders in mass casualty contexts and may have a critical role in both epidemiologic work and guiding public health interventions.     

Impulse control disorders in Parkinson’s disease: Predominant role of psychological determinants

Objectives: Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) have previously almost exclusively been considered to result from anti-parkinsonian medication. However, this biomedical perspective has failed to achieve a full understanding of the phenomenon and it is argued that a failure to consider psychological factors is a critical omission.

Design: The present study examined the predictive relationship between ICDs in PD and a range of psychological measures, whilst controlling for a number of biomedical determinants.

Main outcome measures: One hundred participants with idiopathic PD completed questionnaires that assessed demographic and clinical characteristics, psychological measures and the presence of ICDs (QUIP-RS).

Results: Increased use of a ‘negative’ coping strategy, stronger illness identity, more emotional illness representations and stress were found to be significant predictors of ICDs, and different psychological predictors were associated with different ICDs. Medication was not found to predict ICDs in the presence of psychological factors, either when total treatment levels were considered or when agonist dose was considered alone.

Conclusions: This study provides the first quantitative evidence of a predominant predictive relationship between psychological factors and ICDs in PD. The results suggest that psychological interventions may have useful therapeutic role to play for ICDs in PD.     

What is a difficult mental health case? An empirical study of relationships among domain variables

A difficult case in psychotherapy can be defined in many ways. This study proposes a model for that definition, in which three domains (patient characteristics, case characteristics, and therapist characteristics) are considered to impact on that definition. A total of 264 professionals received a questionnaire to assess the relative importance of a series of variables within and across these domains. Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks tests indicated that patient characteristics were considered more important than therapist or case characteristics in defining a difficult case. Case characteristics were considered more important than therapist characteristics. Pearson correlations, however, suggested that the three domains in the model are related. Correlations (for years of experience) and Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA for ranks (for professions) also indicated that participants were able to identify variables within domains as important in that definition regardless of years of experience or professions. Across domains, the most important variables included the motivation of the client (a patient characteristic), dropout/attrition and multiple diagnoses (case characteristics), and the degree of therapist-client racial similarity (a therapist characteristic).     

Are the Descendants of Slaves Owed Compensation for Slavery?

The compensatory-justice justification of affirmative action requires a comparison of the actual world in which the injured person lives with a relevantly similar possible world in which this person lives but where the unjust injuring act never occurred, in order to identify the degree of harm brought about by the unjust injurious act. The problem is that some unjust injuring acts, particularly acts of slavery, led to intercourse and the later creation of the ancestors of many members of minority groups. Hence, there is no possible world in which these individuals exist and in which the injustice, e.g., slavery, did not occur. As a result, the counterfactual test does not allow us to measure or even understand the existence of a compensatable injury to these persons. I provide an inheritance-based account of compensation that escapes this.     

Loneliness and psychological health of orthopaedic patients’ caregivers: does gender make a difference?

Although research evidence indicates that loneliness is detrimental to mental health in diverse populations, impact of loneliness on psychological distress of orthopaedic patients’ caregivers has been given little research attention. The present study examined the association of loneliness with psychological health, and explored gender differences in the loneliness and psychological health association among orthopaedic patients’ caregivers. Participants were 250 patients’ caregivers drawn from a national orthopaedic hospital in eastern Nigeria. Data was collected by means of self-report measures translated into the local dialect of the caregivers. Multiple regression results showed that loneliness positively predicted psychological distress in the total sample. Loneliness did not predict psychological distress of male caregivers, but it positively predicted psychological distress of female caregivers. In order to promote orthopaedic patients caregivers’ mental health, gender-based differentials in the link between loneliness and psychological distress should be addressed by researchers and healthcare practitioners.     

Is the worldview of qualitative inquiry a proper guide for psychological research?

Qualitative methods are becoming increasingly popular in psychology. Although the distinction between qualitative and quantitative often is stated in terms of methods, the real distinction is between worldviews: that favored by most qualitative methodologists, which emphasizes subjective experience and multiple realities, and that commonly accepted in science. The worldview accepted by most adherents of qualitative inquiry suggests the exclusive use of methods that include verbal reports of lived experience. Qualitative methods serve an important function in psychology, but their use as recommended by their adherents is limited in 2 respects: The adherents use a narrow and unconventional approach to qualitative methods that differs from that normally understood, and they favor use of a restricted range of qualitative methods over other qualitative methods and quantitative methods. If qualitative inquiry is to make a greater contribution to psychology, researchers in that tradition must acquire a better understanding of contemporary science, correct their misunderstandings of the rationale for quantitative methods, and address the apparent limitations of their methods emphasizing reported experience.     

How does persistent pain develop? An analysis of the relationship between psychological variables, pain and function across stages of chronicity

The fear-avoidance model is an attempt to underscore the importance of cognitive and behavioral factors, in a chain of events linking pain to disability. However, it is not clear at what time point the psychological variables within the model begin to be prominent. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of these psychological variables in the development of a chronic musculoskeletal pain problem. Three stages of chronicity, defined by duration of pain, provided a proxy for the developmental process: <1 year (N=48), 1-3 years (N=47) and >3 years (N=89). Subjects completed questionnaires on fear of movement, catastrophizing, depression, pain and function. The results indicate that the relationship between fear of movement and function is moderated by the stage of chronicity. Regression analyses showed that fear of movement did not explain any variance in the group with pain duration <1 year. Fear of movement did explain variance in the groups with pain duration of 1-3 years and >3 years. This suggests that the time point in the development of a musculoskeletal pain problem might be an essential aspect of the importance of the relationship between psychological components and function.     

What Are Gay Men for?

Abstract

The question asked in the title is one that Mark Vernon takes from Michael Vasey's own writings on sexuality. Vernon notes that Vasey presents a clearly constructavist account of sexuality in which the nature and meaning of homosexuality will change with historical and social circumstances. This raises the question of what gay men might be for in contemporary society. In order to explore this question Vernon looks at the literature on friendship, drawing on the work of Aristotle and others. He aims to show that the kind of friendship experienced by and shown to others through gay men, is of a particular, perhaps disturbing, kind. It is from this position that Vernon answers Vasey's question by suggesting that gay men may be able to offer a prophetic message to contemporary society about the nature of friendship beyond, and within, the family structures of society.     

The psychological study of chronically ill and disabled children: Are healthy siblings appropriate controls?

This study examined the appropriateness of siblings as controls in the psychological assessment of children with chronic illness or disability. Findings from 304 cases and 360 randomly selected controls were compared to findings from a subset of 206 case-sibling pairs. Cases were children 6 to 18 years of age with cystic fibrosis, cerebral palsy, myelodysplasia, and multiple handicaps, selected from specialty clinics in two teaching hospitals in the Cleveland area. Results from both data sets were in agreement on major findings indicating that children with cystic fibrosis are not at increased risk for psychopathology, whereas children in the remaining three diagnostic groups show a substantial excess in Mentation Problems and Isolation. The comparisons with matched siblings underestimated pathology in the disabled children in Regressive-Anxiety and aggressive behavior.     

Are neo-Piagetian and neo-Vygotskian interpretations of potential for learning complementary?

According to Pascual-Leone, potential for learning in the neo-Piagetian framework complements the neo-Vygotskian framework for assessment of learning potential, a manifestation of the child's zone of proximal development. Data obtained in a 1998 study by Niaz and Caraucan with three groups of children (7- to 10-yr.-olds, N=94) are reinterpreted as showing the two interpretations are complementary.     

Are performance predictions for text based on ease of processing?

In 4 experiments, the authors evaluated the hypothesis that performance predictions for text are based on ease of processing. In each experiment, participants read texts, predicted their performance for each one, and then were tested. Ease of processing was manipulated by having participants read texts that varied in coherence. Coherence was varied by manipulating causal relatedness across sentence pairs (Experiments 1 and 2) and by altering the structure of sentences within paragraphs (Experiment 3). In these experiments, prediction magnitudes increased as coherence increased, suggesting that predictions were based on processing ease. In Experiment 4, prediction magnitudes were greater for intact paragraphs than for paragraphs with letters deleted from some of the words. Discussion focuses on resolving apparent inconsistencies in the literature concerning whether processing ease influences performance predictions.