刻板印象的激活效应:行为和ERPs证据

以刻板印象表征中的核心内容——刻板特质词作为研究材料,采用分类-确认范式对刻板印象激活效应的时间进程及其认知机制进行了探讨。以性别范畴词"男"/"女"作为启动刺激,以性别刻板特质词作为靶子,特质词与范畴词构成一致和冲突两种情境,记录了34名被试(男女各半)对特质词与范畴词进行一致性判断时的行为反应和ERPs。结果发现:(1)刻板印象冲突情境下,因刻板印象激活效应的作用,被试的反应时要比刻板印象一致情境下更长;不同性别的被试均表现出性别内群体范畴词激活优势效应,即内群体范畴词启动条件下反应时更短。(2)刻板印象激活效应对早期ERP成分(P1、N170、N100、P2)没有影响,在刻板印象冲突情境下诱发了额-中区更显著的N400,该成分标志着刻板印象的激活效应;不同性别的被试均在内群体范畴词启动下诱发了波幅更大的P600。(3)刻板印象的激活效应以及内群体范畴词激活优势效应均发生在知觉后阶段。     

刻板印象的心理表征:范畴还是样例?——来自ERP的证据

选取较为强烈的、具有普遍性的性别刻板印象,通过进行兼具抽象范畴与具体样例的人物图片与刻板化特征词的匹配判断,操纵抽象范畴与具体样例的不同水平,利用ERP技术探讨了刻板印象的心理单元及其在大脑活动中的神经电位变化与定位特征.结果发现:(1)在刻板印象冲突情景下出现了晚正成分P600,主要位于额叶与颞叶,P600的波幅随冲突强度的增加而减弱.(2)刻板印象在记忆中的表征单元是以典型样例优先,基本范畴次之,最后到抽象范畴的"金字塔"模型.     

内隐刻板印象研究方法进展

刻板印象的研究一直都是社会认知的重要组成部分,本文简要概述了刻板印象研究方法的进展,着重介绍了加工分离程序,基于反应时的范式,以及刻板印象解释偏差(SEB),并对今后认知神经科学研究进行了简述。     

外显与内隐刻板印象的分布式表征及其激活过程——基于认知神经科学视角的探索

刻板印象是人们有关群体的行为特征与特质属性信念化的认识, 它多以语义图式形式存储于长时记忆中。依据激活过程中意识参与程度的不同, 刻板印象具有内隐和外显两种表现型。不同于双加工理论“自动激活+认知控制”的研究视角, 本项目计划从内隐/外显记忆的多重记忆系统模型出发, 试图检验内隐与外显刻板印象在表征机制和激活过程上的差异。现有的多重记忆系统模型虽能解释内隐和外显刻板印象在记忆存储与提取上的机制差别, 但却无法阐释二者语义表征带有的心理理论特性以及二者的认知控制过程。有鉴于此, 本项目拟吸收“镜像系统−心理化系统”模型和双加工理论各自在特质与信念加工以及刻板印象认知控制上的理论优势, 深入探索内隐和外显刻板印象的分布式表征机制。借助ERP技术的时间过程优势和fMRI技术的脑区动态因果建模优势, 研究结果将最终揭示刻板印象分布式语义表征的动态加工机制。     

老化刻板印象研究现状及展望

老化刻板印象是人们对老年人所持有的观念与预期,它能显著影响老化刻板印象持有者的生理功能、认知功能和行为结果。现有研究主要集中在老化刻板印象的机制、影响因素和中介变量方面。研究发现,老化刻板印象是通过内化形成的,刻板印象威胁理论和自我刻板化是解释老化刻板印象的两种作用机制。认知加工过程中的抑制能力、情境和文化差异是影响老化刻板印象的主要因素,而老化自我知觉和刻板期望则是老化刻板印象影响效果变量的中介因素。未来研究除了要继续探讨意识水平、情境因素、个体特征对老化刻板印象的影响以及老化刻板印象对不同年龄群体影响的特点以外,还应关注中介和干预研究,并进一步加强跨文化研究。     

消极情绪对优势认知加工的抑制

优势认知加工是大脑中指向当前任务的、主导的、可及性最高的信息加工过程。刻板印象与反刻板印象思维、整体加工与局部加工、关系加工与项目特异性加工、综合推理与分析推理、目标追求等认知领域的研究表明, 消极情绪会抑制优势认知加工。这种抑制作用受到优势认知加工的明确性、消极情绪的类型以及优势认知加工与消极情绪的联系三方面因素的影响。采用实验分离加工法与实验后分离加工法的研究显示, 消极情绪主要通过抑制自动加工过程来抑制优势认知加工。目前对消极情绪抑制优势认知加工的理论解释有情绪信息理论、趋近系统观和情绪具身观, 其中情绪信息理论被广泛接受。未来还需进一步明确优势认知加工的含义, 在准确描述该现象的同时, 深入挖掘其背后的机制。     

情绪对内隐刻板印象表达的调节

采用IAT范式探讨不同情绪对内隐刻板印象表达的调节作用：实验1通过音乐唤醒被试的不同弥散性情绪状态(悲伤vs.愉悦), 并操纵其即时观念(刻板一致vs.刻板冲突), 探讨二者对内隐性别刻板印象表达的影响。实验2通过视频诱发被试不同的指向性情绪(同情vs.厌恶), 研究其如何调节大学生对不同感染途径的艾滋病患者和病毒携带者的内隐刻板印象表达。在此基础上引入四重模型(Quad Model)分析技术, 进一步细化情绪的调节作用究竟发生在认知加工的自动加工过程还是控制加工过程, 以及不同情绪是通过哪些心理成分调节内隐刻板印象的表达。结果表明：(1)当即时观念与刻板印象内容一致时, 积极弥散性情绪促进内隐刻板印象的表达; 反之则会抑制其表达; (2)弥散性情绪通过调节认知加工的自动化加工过程, 进而调节内隐刻板印象的表达, 但未参与调节控制性加工过程; (3)积极效价的指向性情绪会抑制被试对艾滋病患者的内隐刻板印象表达, 消极效价的指向性情绪会促进其表达; (4)指向性情绪通过自动激活成分, 调节内隐刻板印象表达的自动化加工过程; 同时也通过辨识力成分, 参与调节内隐刻板印象表达的控制性加工过程。     

老年刻板印象威胁及其研究操纵

随着人口老龄化的不断加剧, 老年刻板印象威胁受到越来越多的关注。不同于种族或民族、性别等刻板印象威胁, 老年刻板印象威胁表现出累积性、共通性与连续性等特征。目前关于老年刻板印象威胁的研究多集中于认知老化尤其是记忆老化上, 关注老年刻板印象威胁对老年司机和老年员工的消极影响。消除与降低老年刻板印象威胁的消极效应可以从认知改变、群体认同、代际接触、老龄自我实现和个性化以及媒体宣传等五个方面来进行。在实验室研究中, 老年刻板印象威胁有外显与内隐两种不同的操纵形式。未来可以从扩展研究领域、细化“年龄”差异、比较整体效应大小和性别差异、侧重积极效应以及加强本土化检验和跨文化比较研究等方面来深化。     

元刻板印象及其对群际关系的作用

元刻板印象是指个体关于外群体成员对其所属群体(内群体)所持刻板印象的信念。作为一种群际元知觉, 元刻板印象的内容和效价可以在一定程度上反映群际关系。近些年, 越来越多的研究表明元刻板印象是影响群际关系的更加重要的变量。相对于刻板印象, 元刻板印象的激活更加复杂, 激活的元刻板印象会引发一系列的情绪、认知和行为效应。未来研究应关注元刻板印象作用于群际关系的心理机制, 并进一步探讨通过元刻板印象改善群际关系的策略, 开展针对于我国不同群体的本土化研究。     

刻板印象的社会认知研究述论

０引言刻板印象（ｓｔｅｒｅｏｔｙｐｅ）是当代社会认知理论的基本课题之一。近１５—２０年以来,从社会认知角度开展的刻板印象研究在很大程度上改变与推进着对刻板印象的思考和探讨。而本文的目的即是考察刻板印象研究进程中认知理论的历史地位、讨论近年来这方面的理论与实证研究之进展以及对研究者思考与探究刻板印象之途径的影响等问题。１刻板印象理论与研究之历史回溯１．１概念的提出及衍化刻板印象这一术语是由一位名叫Ｗ．Ｉ。ｉｐｐｍａｎｎ的新闻记者在其著作“公众舆论”（１９９２年）中提出的。他发现成见（ｐｒｅｃｏｎｃ…     

Sex differences in neural efficiency: Are they due to the stereotype threat effect?

The neural efficiency hypothesis postulates a more efficient use of brain resources in more intelligent people as compared to less intelligent ones. However, this relationship was found to be moderated by sex and task content. While the phenomenon of neural efficiency was previously supported for men when performing visuo-spatial tasks it occurred for women only when performing verbal tasks. One possible explanation for this finding could be provided by the well-studied phenomenon called stereotype threat. Stereotype threat arises when a negative stereotype of one’s own group is made salient and can result in behavior that confirms the stereotype. Overall, 32 boys and 31 girls of varying intellectual ability were tested with a mental rotation task, either under a stereotype exposure or a no-stereotype exposure condition while measuring their EEG. The behavioral results show that an activated negative stereotype not necessarily hampers the performance of girls. Physiologically, a confirmation of the neural efficiency phenomenon was only obtained for boys working under a no-stereotype exposure condition. This result pattern replicates previous findings without threat and thus suggests that sex differences in neural efficiency during visuo-spatial tasks may not be due to the stereotype threat effect.     

Variations of Gender–math Stereotype Content Affect Women’s Vulnerability to Stereotype Threat

To determine whether variations in stereotype content salience moderates stereotype threat effects, 66 US female undergraduate students were given a standardized math exam, and the salience of specific gender–math stereotype content was manipulated before the exam. Women exerted more effort on each problem and performed better on a math exam when threatened with an effort-based stereotype compared to when threatened with the ability-based stereotype or control (where no stereotype was explicitly mentioned). Implications of these results are discussed in terms of stereotype and social identity threat theory, as well as how the socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender–math stereotype may impact women who pursue math and science-based domains.     

基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活两阶段模型

从个体建构研究视角出发, 考察了基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活过程。实验一比较了性别分类判断、启动范式以及同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配性判断三者所用反应时的差异, 结果发现, 后者显著地大于前二者, 且等于前二者之和; 面孔倒置呈现使同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率显著增大, 但其对启动范式中刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率没有影响。实验二基于同时呈现范式, 通过不同程度的面孔变形来操纵性别类别提取的难度, 更精确地探讨了基于面孔知觉的社会类别信息提取过程对刻板印象激活的影响, 结果表明, 随着从面孔中提取类别信息难度的增加, 刻板印象激活所用的反应时也逐渐增大。研究结果证实了研究者所提出的刻板印象激活两阶段模型, 即基于面孔知觉的社会类别提取阶段和刻板印象信息激活阶段, 证实社会类别激活和刻板印象信息激活是两个分离的过程, 以社会类别信息提取为目的的面孔知觉对刻板印象的激活有显著影响。     

Not all stereotypic biases are created equal: evidence for a stereotype-disconfirming bias

Stereotype-confirming biases are well documented in the social psychological literature. However, motivations to disconfirm social stereotypes may be more influential for unprejudiced individuals. Three experiments are presented that test the hypothesis that extremely unprejudiced people exhibit a bias toward stereotype disconfirmation. Experiment 1 investigates stereotype disconfirmation in information-seeking preferences. Experiments 2 and 3 explore attributional strategies for stereotype disconfirmation. In all experiments, unprejudiced participants respond in ways reflecting a motivation to disconfirm social stereotypes. Implications for stereotype change and stereotypic influences on judgment and behavior are discussed.     

Gender Stereotype Activation versus Lexical Semantic Activation: An ERP Study

It is an open question whether social stereotype activation can be distinguished from nonsocial semantic activation. To address this question, gender stereotype activation (GSA) and lexical semantic activation (LSA) were directly compared. EEGs were recorded in 20 participants as they identified the congruence between prime-target word pairs under four different conditions (stereotype congruent, stereotype incongruent, semantic congruent, and semantic incongruent). We found that congruent targets elicited faster and more accurate responses and reduced N400 amplitudes irrespective of priming category types. The N400 congruency effect (i.e., the difference between incongruity and congruity) started earlier and had greater amplitude for GSA than for LSA. Moreover, gender category priming induced a smaller N400 and a larger P600 than lexical category priming. These findings suggest that the brain is not only sensitive to both stereotype and semantic violation in the post-perceptual processing stage but can also differentiate these two information processes. Further, the findings suggest superior processing (i.e., faster and deeper processing) when the words are associated with social category and convey stereotype knowledge.     

Men in pink collars: Stereotype threat and disengagement among male teachers and child protection workers

Male employees are a traditionally advantaged group, but when working in a female‐dominated industry they may be vulnerable to negative gender stereotypes. The current research examined stereotype threat among men in two traditionally feminine jobs. Study 1 measured stereotype threat among primary school teachers and found that men experienced more stereotype threat than women, and that feelings of stereotype threat were related to negative job attitudes for men but not women. Study 2 manipulated the direction of social comparisons to elicit stereotype threat among male child protection workers. For men but not women, upward social comparisons with a successful feminine target elicited stereotype threat. In turn, stereotype threat was associated with intentions to resign and feeling expected to perform stereotypic masculine work tasks. These results suggest that despite their advantaged status, men in pink‐collar jobs are susceptible to workplace stereotype threat.     

Different brain mechanisms between stereotype activation and application: evidence from an ERP study

Stereotyping involves two processes in which first, social stereotypes are activated (stereotype activation), and then, stereotypes are applied to given targets (stereotype application). Previous behavioral studies have suggested that these two processes are independent of each other and may have different mechanisms. As few psychophysiological studies have given an integrated account of these stages in stereotyping so far, this study utilized a trait categorization task in which event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to explore the brain mechanisms associated with the processes of stereotype activation and its application. The behavioral (reaction time) and electrophysiological data showed that stereotype activation and application were elicited respectively in an affective valence identification subtask and in a semantic content judgment subtask. The electrophysiological results indicated that the categorization processes involved in stereotype activation to quickly identify stereotypic and nonstereotypic information were quite different from those involved in the application. During the process of stereotype activation, a P2 and N2 effect was observed, indicating that stereotype activation might be facilitated by an early attentional bias. Also, a late positive potential (LPP) was elicited, suggesting that social expectancy violation might be involved. During the process of the stereotype application, electrophysiological data showed a P2 and P3 effect, indicating that stereotype application might be related to the rapid social knowledge identification in semantic representation and thus may be associated with an updating of existing stereotypic contents or a motivation to resolve the inconsistent information. This research strongly suggested that different mechanisms are involved in the stereotype activation and application processes.     

Perceiving ingroup members who use stereotypes: implicit conformity and similarity

Previous studies have shown that people subtly conform more to ingroup members who use stereotype‐consistent rather than stereotype‐inconsistent information when describing an outgroup member (Castelli, Vanzetto, Sherman, & Arcuri, 2001 ). In the present article, we will address two important issues. First, we will examine whether this subtle conformity toward stereotypers is related to individuals' prejudice level (Study 1). Second, we will examine one of the processes that underlie the perception of ingroup members who use stereotype‐consistent information, hypothesizing that individuals implicitly feel more similar to such sources than to ingroup members who use stereotype‐inconsistent information (Study 2). Both hypotheses were confirmed and results are discussed in terms of the distinction between implicit and explicit attitudes and their implications in the maintenance of social stereotypes. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进

刻板印象提升指个体意识到外群体具有消极刻板印象, 而产生与受诋毁的外群体向下的社会比较, 以提高个体自我效能感和动机, 进而提高表现; 刻板印象促进是积极刻板印象被激活后的积极结果, 指当个体处在他们的积极刻板印象身份被激活的情境中, 表现上升的一种现象。在刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进概念论述的基础上, 重点探讨了调节变量和结果影响这两种联系, 并从相关概念、被试要求和心理机制这三方面论述了这两者的区别。最后, 指出未来研究应加强对二者的关注, 消除其在概念上的混淆, 开展相关心理与神经机制的研究, 以及结合刻板印象阻抗进行探讨。