Covert operations: orthographic recoding as a basis for repetition priming in word identification

When a word is generated from a semantic cue, coincident orthographic visualization of that word may cause priming on a subsequent perceptual identification test. A task was introduced that required subjects to visualize the orthographic pattern of auditorily presented words. When used at study, this task produced a pattern of priming similar to that produced by a generate study task. When used at test, equal priming on the orthographic task was produced by read and generate study tasks but not by a generate study task that failed to invite orthographic visualization. Priming on perceptually based word identification tests that results from a generate study episode may be largely due to orthographic recoding of the target rather than to conceptual processing.     

The developmental turnpoint of orthographic consistency effects in speech recognition

The influence of orthography on children's online auditory word recognition was studied from the end of Grade 4 to the end of Grade 9 by examining the orthographic consistency effect in auditory lexical decision. Fourth-graders showed evidence of a widespread influence of orthography in their spoken word recognition system; words with rimes that can be spelled in two different ways (inconsistent) produced longer auditory lexical decision times and more errors than did consistent words. A similar consistency effect was also observed on pseudowords. With adult listeners, on exactly the same material, we replicated the usual pattern of an orthographic consistency effect restricted to words in lexical decision. From Grade 6 onward, this adult pattern of orthographic effect on spoken recognition is already observable.     

Preserved orthographic length and transitional probabilities in written spelling in a case of acquired dysgraphia

We present the performance of a patient with acquired dysgraphia, DS, who has intact oral spelling (100% correct) but severely impaired written spelling (7% correct). Her errors consisted entirely of well-formed letter substitutions. This striking dissociation is further characterized by consistent preservation of orthographic, as opposed to phonological, length in her written output. This pattern of performance indicates that DS has intact graphemic representations, and that her errors are due to a deficit in letter shape assignment. We further interpret the occurrence of a small percentage of lexical errors in her written responses and a significant effect of letter frequencies and transitional probabilities on the pattern of letter substitutions as the result of a repair mechanism that locally constrains DS' written output.     

Oral reading in dementia

Reading has been thought to consist of three main processing components: the orthographic, phonological, and semantic lexicons. In traditional psycholinguistic models, these components have been treated independently such that the selective dysfunction of one does not necessarily imply the breakdown of another. Recently, it has been proposed that a word's semantic representation is essential to oral reading such that a disturbance within the semantic lexicon will disrupt processing within the orthographic and/or phonological lexicons. From this view, semantic deterioration should lead to fragmentation of the other systems contributing to reading, resulting in a specific pattern of errors during oral reading. This would include (1) a larger than normal advantage for reading words with regular spelling-to-sound correspondence over words with exception spelling, as well as the production of "regularization errors" when reading exception words; and (2) a smaller than normal difference between reading real words and pronounceable nonwords, or pseudowords (PW's). We found that patients with Semantic Dementia generally conformed to these hypothesized patterns of reading difficulty. Despite the presence of a semantic impairment, however, patients with Alzheimer's Disease, Frontotemporal Dementia, and Progressive Non-Fluent Aphasia did not demonstrate these patterns of reading difficulty. Our findings suggest that not all semantic impairments invariably lead to the disruption of the orthographic and phonological lexicons.     

Rowed to recovery: the use of phonological and orthographic information in reading Chinese and English

To examine how readers of Chinese and English take advantage of orthographic and phonological features in reading, the authors investigated the effects of spelling errors on reading text in Chinese and English using the error disruption paradigm of M. Daneman and E. Reingold (1993). Skilled readers in China and the United States read passages in their native language that contained occasional spelling errors. Results showed that under some circumstances very early phonological activation can be identified in English, but no evidence for early phonology was found in Chinese. In both languages, homophone errors showed a benefit in measures of later processing, suggesting that phonology helps readers recover from the disruptive effects of errors. These results suggest that skilled readers take advantage of the special features of particular orthographies but that these orthographic effects may be most pronounced in the early stages of lexical access.     

A rose by any other name is not the same: the role of orthographic knowledge in homophone confusion errors

Homophone confusion errors were examined in a series of 6 experiments. Across a variety of tasks, readers consistently made more errors on homophone trials than on control trials. These effects were established in Experiment 1 using a semantic-decision task in which participants judged whether pairs of words were related or unrelated. For both related and unrelated trials, error rates were higher for homophones as compared with controls. Results such as these have previously been taken as evidence for the role of phonology in lexical access and reading. However, differences in orthographic knowledge (more specifically, knowledge of spelling-to-meaning correspondences) across participants and homophone items significantly predicted homophone errors across all tasks. In addition, spelling tasks and multiple-choice questionnaires revealed differences in orthographic knowledge across participants and homophone items. Although these results do not rule out a role for phonology in lexical access, they indicate that homophone confusion errors may also be due to factors other than phonology.     

汉字记忆中错误联接的码相加效应

采用错误联接的实验范式考察汉字记忆中的码相加效应。实验1采用形码加义码,结果发现对义似形似组的特征诱字错误再认率显著高于义异形似组的。实验2采用形码加音码．结果发现对音似形似组的诱字的错误再认率显著高于音异形似组的。研究表明汉语记忆中的错误联接存在码相加效应。研究结果可用激活混淆来源理论解释。     

The mispriming effect: Evidence of an orthographic check in the lexical decision task

This paper describes a lexical decision experiment that demonstrates that there are increased rates of errors for words “misprimed” with words strongly associated with visually similar words (e.g., BREAD-BATTER) relative to rates for the same words preceded by completely unrelated words (e.g., SLEEP-BATTER). The pattern of results is shown to be inconsistent with Forster’s (1976) search model but consistent with a criterion-bias model supplemented by an orthographic checking process.

     

The Role of Attention in Word Recognition: Results from OB1-Reader

When reading, orthographic information is extracted not only from the word the reader is looking at, but also from adjacent words in the parafovea. Here we examined, using the recently introduced OB1-reader computational model, how orthographic information can be processed in parallel across multiple words and how orthographic information can be integrated across time and space. Although OB1-reader is a model of text reading, here we used it to simulate single-word recognition experiments in which parallel processing has been shown to play a role by manipulating the surrounding context in flanker and priming paradigms. In flanker paradigms, observers recognize a central word flanked by other letter strings located left and right of the target and separated from the target by a space. The model successfully accounts for the finding that such flankers can aid word recognition when they contain bigrams of the target word, independent of where those flankers are in the visual field. In priming experiments, in which the target word is preceded by a masked prime, the model accounts for the finding that priming occurs independent of whether the prime and target word are in the same location or not. Crucial to these successes is the key role that spatial attention plays within OB1-reader, as it allows the model to receive visual input from multiple locations in parallel, while limiting the kinds of errors that can potentially occur under such spatial pooling of orthographic information.     

Morphological analysis of disrupted morphemes: Evidence from Hebrew

In concatenative languages such as English, the morphemes of a word are linked linearly so that words formed from the same base morpheme also resemble each other along orthographic dimensions. In Hebrew, by contrast, the morphemes of a word can be but are not generally concatenated. Instead, a pattern of vowels is infixed between the consonants of the root morpheme. Consequently, the shared portion of morphologically-related words in Hebrew is not always an orthographic unit. In a series of three experiments using the repetition priming task with visually presented Hebrew materials, primes that were formed from the same base morpheme and were morphologically-related to a target facilitated target recognition. Moreover, morphologically-related prime and target pairs that contained a disruption to the shared orthographic pattern showed the same pattern of facilitation as did nondisrupted pairs. That is, there was no effect over successive prime and target presentations, of disrupting the sequence of letters that constitutes the base morpheme or root. In addition, facilitation was similar across derivational, inflectional and identical primes. The conclusion of the present study is that morphological effects in word recognition are distinct from the effects of shared structure.     

The development of the orthographic consistency effect in speech recognition: from sublexical to lexical involvement

The influence of orthography on children's on-line auditory word recognition was studied from the end of Grade 2 to the end of Grade 4, by examining the orthographic consistency effect [Ziegler, J. C., & Ferrand, L. (1998). Orthography shapes the perception of speech: The consistency effect in auditory recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin &Review, 5, 683-689.] in auditory lexical decision and shadowing tasks. Words with rhymes that can be spelled in two different ways (inconsistent) produced longer auditory lexical decision and shadowing times and more errors than did consistent words. A similar consistency effect was also observed on pseudowords. The observation of a general consistency effect, both for words and pseudowords, in lexical decision and in shadowing suggests a widespread influence of orthography in the children's spoken word recognition system. On exactly the same material, with adult listeners we replicated the usual pattern of an orthographic consistency effect restricted to words in lexical decision [Ventura, P., Morais, J., Pattamadilok, C., & Kolinsky, R. (2004). The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19, 57-95; Ziegler, J. C., & Ferrand, L. (1998). Orthography shapes the perception of speech: The consistency effect in auditory recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin &Review, 5, 683-689]. A reanalysis of the lexical decision and shadowing results of Ventura et al. [Ventura, P., Morais, J., Pattamadilok, C., & Kolinsky, R. (2004). The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19, 57-95.] confirmed the discrepancy between the effects of orthographic consistency in child readers and adults. A further control experiment showed that orthographic consistency effects were not present in pre-readers. Results are interpreted considering the coexistence in children's reading of a mechanism of automatic access to well-specified orthographic representations of words and the persistence of grapho-phonological decoding procedures.     

Phonological and orthographic coding skills in adult readers

Although less skilled readers are handicapped by their poor phonological skills, this may not be true of their visual and orthographic coding skills. Because of an increasing reliance on visual-orthographic coding with reading experience, the author predicted that there would be smaller differences between skilled and less skilled adult readers on orthographic coding measures than on phonological coding measures. The orthographic and phonological coding measures involved, respectively, judgments of which looks more like a word, filv-fild, and which sounds like a real word, kake-dake? On the orthographic measure, reading groups did not differ in coding speed--although the less skilled readers made more errors, but far fewer than on the phonological coding measure. Differences between reading groups were substantial for both speed and errors on the phonological coding measure. Phonological variables accounted for most of the variance in word recognition, and this was especially true for men. The results suggest that in less skilled adult readers, phonological skills are a primary factor in their reading despite some evidence of visual-orthographic compensation.     

Working memory and error detection in texts: what are the roles of the central executive and the phonological loop?

Subjects performed a text error detection task, either alone or in conjunction with a secondary task aimed at specifically hindering the functioning of either the central executive in working memory or of the phonological loop. We focused on the decline in detection performance as a function of the type of error to be detected (typographical, orthographic, or semantic/syntactic) and the processing span required for detection (one word, several words within the same clause, or several clauses). The results showed that the central executive in working memory is involved in detecting semantic/syntactic errors and in detecting orthographic ones, but not in detecting typographical errors. Moreover, the degree of involvement increases with the processing span. The phonological loop is involved in detection whenever processing above the word level is required. As observed in many studies, these results suggest that the difficulty subjects have detecting semantic errors as compared to other types of errors is due to the heavier working memory load: maintenance of the phonological representation and greater involvement of the central executive. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.