Focal distraction: spatial shifts of attentional focus are not required for contingent capture

Contingent capture occurs when distractors that share the target's defining attribute capture attention and slow down target identification. This slowdown has been attributed to an involuntary attentional shift to the location of a pertinent distractor. The present study examined an additional source of delay: the time spent in processing pertinent distractors. In 7 experiments, distractors were presented at fixation, and targets were presented either at fixation or peripherally. Contingent capture invariably occurred when a salient distractor was presented within about 600 ms before the target, even when spatial shifts in attentional focus were ruled out. A 2-stage model is proposed in which stimuli must pass an input filter tuned to the target's defining attribute before gaining access to a high-level stage that is unavailable while a distractor is being processed.     

An intact eye‐movement system is not required to generate inhibition of return

AI is unable to make eye‐movements and has a deficit of reflexive attention. Here, we demonstrate that despite these deficits AI exhibits inhibition of return (IOR) for peripherally cued objects and locations. These data suggest that an intact oculomotor system is not required for the generation of either object‐based or location‐based IOR and are consistent with the view that the early, facilitatory effects of peripheral cues and late IOR effects are mediated by different mechanisms.     

PKA and PKC are required for long-term but not short-term in vivo operant memory in Aplysia

We investigated the involvement of PKA and PKC signaling in a negatively reinforced operant learning paradigm in Aplysia, learning that food is inedible (LFI). In vivo injection of PKA or PKC inhibitors blocked long-term LFI memory formation. Moreover, a persistent phase of PKA activity, although not PKC activity, was necessary for long-term memory. Surprisingly, neither PKA nor PKC activity was required for associative short-term LFI memory. Additionally, PKA and PKC were not required for the retrieval of short- or long-term memory (STM and LTM, respectively). These studies have identified key differences between the mechanisms underlying nonassociative sensitization, operant reward learning, and LFI memory in Aplysia.     

Consistent haptic feedback is required but it is not enough for natural reaching to virtual cylinders

In virtual reality it is easy to control the visual cues that tell us about an object's shape. However, it is much harder to provide realistic virtual haptic feedback when grasping virtual objects. In this study we examined the role of haptic feedback when grasping (virtual) cylinders with an elliptical circumference. In Experiment 1 we placed the same circular cylinder at the simulated location of virtual elliptical cylinders of varying shape, so that the haptic feedback did not change when the visually specified shape changed. We found that the scaling of maximum grip aperture with the diameter of the nearest principal axis (.14+/-.04) was much weaker than when grasping real cylinders (.54+/-.04, Cuijpers, Brenner, & Smeets, 2006 Grasping reveals visual misjudgements of shape. Experimental Brain Research, 175, 32-44). For the scaling of grip orientation with the orientation of the cylinder we found large individual differences: the range is .07-.82 (average .42+/-.07) as compared to .55-.79 (average .67+/-.03) for grasping real cylinders. In Experiment 2 we provided consistent haptic feedback by placing real cylinders that matched the location, shape and orientation of the virtual cylinders. The scaling gains of both maximum grip aperture (.39+/-.04) and grip orientation (.56+/-.08) were substantially higher than in Experiment 1, but still lower than for grasps to real cylinders. The variability between participants for the scaling of grip orientation was also much reduced. These results showed that although haptic feedback must be consistent with visual information, it is not sufficient for natural prehension. We discuss the implications of these findings in terms of the integration of visual information with haptic feedback.     

Reading aloud is not automatic: processing capacity is required to generate a phonological code from print

The present experiments tested the claim that phonological recoding occurs "automatically" by assessing whether it uses central attention in the context of the psychological refractory period paradigm. Task 1 was a tone discrimination task and Task 2 was reading aloud. The joint effects of long-lag word repetition priming and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) were underadditive in Experiment 1, suggesting that an early component of lexical processing does not use central attention. In contrast, nonword letter length and grapheme-phoneme complexity yielded additive effects with SOA in Experiments 2, 3, and 4, suggesting that assembled phonology uses central attention. Further, orthographic neighborhood density also yielded additive effects with SOA in Experiments 5, 6, and 7, suggesting that lexical contributions to phonological recoding use central attention. Taken together, the results of these experiments are inconsistent with the widespread claim that phonological codes are assembled and/or addressed automatically. It is suggested that "automaticity" should be replaced by accounts that make more specific claims about how processing unfolds.     

Distinct single but not necessarily repeated tetanization is required to induce hippocampal late-LTP in the rat CA1

The protein synthesis-dependent form of hippocampal long-term potentiation (late-LTP) is thought to underlie memory. Its induction requires a distinct stimulation strength, and the common opinion is that only repeated tetani result in late-LTP whereas as single tetanus only reveals a transient early-LTP. Properties of LTP induction were compared to learning processes where repetition is often the prerequisite for a long-lasting memory. However, also single events can lead to manifested memory. If LTP subserves processes of learning, similar results should be detectable for LTP. Here we show that a single tetanus is sufficient to induce late-LTP requiring dopaminergic co-transmission during induction.     

Ideological parsimony

The theoretical virtue of parsimony values the minimizing of theoretical commitments, but theoretical commitments come in two kinds: ontological and ideological. While the ontological commitments of a theory are the entities it posits, a theory’s ideological commitments are the primitive concepts it employs. Here, I show how we can extend the distinction between quantitative and qualitative parsimony, commonly drawn regarding ontological commitments, to the domain of ideological commitments. I then argue that qualitative ideological parsimony is a theoretical virtue. My defense proceeds by demonstrating the merits of qualitative ideological parsimony and by showing how the qualitative conception of ideological parsimony undermines two notable arguments from ideological parsimony: David Lewis’ defense of modal realism and Ted Sider’s defense of mereological nihilism.     

Ideological rupturing

Seeking to rectify the asocial nature of conventional social psychological investigation, some researchers and scholars have sought ways to better understand what is shared in everyday thinking and have, accordingly, focused their attention on the notion of ideology. Although this vein of scholarship has reclaimed the social domain, it has not thoroughly accounted for the way that ideologies can be imposed, and as such, does not adequately address the concept in a way that honors its origin and development. In this paper, I articulate a conceptual framework that can be used to underpin research on momentary ideological impositions in relation to people's negotiation of imposed value orientations—moments that can be described as instances of ideological rupturing. After situating this articulation in relation to the work of other ideology‐focused psychologists, I introduce a recent enactment of educational policy as an illustrative case of ideological rupturing. In so doing, I present a narrative approach that is grounded in dialogic activity as an ideal way to investigate instances of ideological rupturing.     

Sex differences in righting from supine to prone in rats (Rattus norvegicus): a masculinized skeletomusculature is not required

Previous research has shown that sex differences exist in the composition of lateral movements (E. F. Field, I. Q. Whishaw, & S. M. Pellis, 1996, 1997a, 1997b; see also records 1996-06132-009, 1997-05322-015, and 1997-04722-005). An unresolved question is whether sex differences are present in other movements, such as rotation around the longitudinal axis, and whether this difference is dependent on a feminine or masculine skeletomusculature. Female rats (Rattus norvegicus) first rotate their forequarters and then their hindquarters in the same direction. Male rats exhibit rotation of the hindquarters counter to the direction of forequarter rotation. Males with the testicular feminized mutation, who have a feminized skeletomusculature and masculinized central nervous system, are similar to male controls. This study provides evidence that sex differences in movement integration are not restricted to the lateral plane, are not solely due to sex differences in skeletomusculature, and thus are likely mediated by the central nervous system.     

Compassion and purity: the ethics and boundary-making of Christian evangelicals

The paper explores the ethical attitude of Christian evangelicals in a church in Britain and how it affects boundary-making of their community. Evangelicals in the case study seek to be accepting of the person and to refrain from being judgemental. The paper distinguishes between the person-centred ‘ethic of compassion’ and the norm-centred ‘ethic of purity’. The ethic of compassion consists in accepting another and recognising the dignity of another based on shared humanity. It is a frame of mind that combines moral intention with the emotions of empathy and sympathy. In contrast, the ethic of purity privileges adherence to the moral order of the group over considerations for the person. The ‘compassionate’ frame of mind weakens boundaries, while the ‘pure’ frame of mind reinforces them. The boundaries of a community result from the interplay of the two ethics.     

Amygdala upregulation of NCAM polysialylation induced by auditory fear conditioning is not required for memory formation, but plays a role in fear extinction

There is much interest to understand the mechanisms leading to the establishment, maintenance, and extinction of fear memories. The amygdala has been critically involved in the processing of fear memories and a number of molecular changes have been implicated in this brain region in relation to fear learning. Although neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs) have been hypothesized to play a role, information available about their contribution to fear memories is scarce. We investigate here whether polysialylated NCAM (PSA-NCAM) contributes to auditory fear conditioning in the amygdala. First, PSA-NCAM expression was evaluated in different amygdala nuclei after auditory fear conditioning at two different shock intensities. Results showed that PSA-NCAM expression was increased 24 h post-training only in animals subjected to the highest shock intensity (1mA). Second, PSA-NCAM was cleaved in the basolateral amygdaloid complex through micro-infusions of the enzyme endoneuraminidase N, and the consequences of such treatment were investigated on the acquisition, consolidation, remote memory expression, and extinction of conditioned fear memories. Intra-amygdaloid cleavage of PSA-NCAM did not affect acquisition, consolidation or expression of remote fear memories. However, intra-amygdaloid PSA-NCAM cleavage enhanced fear extinction processes. These results suggest that upregulation of PSA-NCAM is a correlate of fear conditioning that is not necessary for the establishment of fear memory in the amygdala, but participates in mechanisms precluding fear extinction. These findings point out PSA-NCAM as a potential target for the treatment of psychopathologies that involve impairment in fear extinction.     

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is required for the expression of contextual but not auditory freezing in rats with basolateral amygdala lesions

Previous data suggest that overtraining can overcome fear conditioning deficits in rats with lesions of the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA). We have previously shown that the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA) is essential for the acquisition and expression of conditional fear to both contextual and auditory conditioned stimuli (CSs) after overtraining. This provides strong evidence that the CEA can compensate for the loss of the BLA. Another brain area that may compensate for the loss of the BLA is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). We explored this possibility by examining the consequences of lesions or reversible inactivation of the BNST on the expression of overtrained fear in rats with BLA lesions. We demonstrate that lesions or inactivation of the BNST block the expression of freezing to the conditioning context, but not to an auditory conditional stimulus. These results reveal that the BNST has a critical role in the expression of contextual fear, but not fear to an auditory CS, and is therefore not the essential locus of compensation for fear learning in the absence of the BLA.     

NR2B downregulation in a forebrain region required for avian vocal learning is not sufficient to close the sensitive period for song learning

The neural changes that limit the sensitive period for avian song development are unknown, but neurons in a forebrain region critical for song learning, the lMAN, exhibit experience-driven changes in NMDAR subunit expression that could regulate sensitive period closure. Specifically, NR2B levels in lMAN decrease during song acquisition, potentially reducing synaptic plasticity by decreasing NMDAR EPSC duration and/or affecting NMDAR-coupled intracellular cascades. While rearing birds in isolation extends the sensitive period and also delays the developmental changes in NR2B expression and NMDAR physiology, recent work indicates that a transition to faster NMDAR currents does not preclude further song learning. However, NR2B mRNA expression in isolates remains elevated beyond the age at which NMDAR currents shorten, leaving open the possibility that NR2B levels regulate closure of the sensitive period through effects other than those mediated by NMDAR current duration. To determine whether the experience-driven decrease in NR2B expression in lMAN closes the sensitive period, we promoted this change in gene expression either by treating isolation-reared zebra finches briefly with testosterone (T-isolates) or by allowing males limited access to conspecific song (pre-exposed isolates). We then assessed if these birds could acquire song from tutors after the normal close of the sensitive period. Despite a normal decline in NR2B expression, T-isolate and pre-exposed isolate birds learned tutor songs heard from d65-90, while normally reared birds did not. These findings suggest that the normal decline in NR2B expression with lMAN is not sufficient for sensitive period closure.     

Cleanliness and godliness: Mutual association between two kinds of personal purity

Purity rituals (such as baptism, mikvah, and ablution) are an important component of many religious practices. These practices not only help protect the faithful from physical contaminants, but also bestow symbolic purity and maintain the sanctity of sacred objects. The present work examines the association between religion and cleanliness, as two representations of personal purity. Religious primes were found to activate cleanliness concepts in a word-stem completion task (Study 1), and increased the subjective value of cleaning products (Study 2). In a final study, cleaning primes increased ratings of religious value. These studies suggest a mutual association between religiousness and cleanliness, and that each may activate the other as goals for personal purity.     

宗教信仰与思想教育

据报道,某县委书记领着一位下乡干部去看当地农村的一批佛寺,这些佛寺全部修茸一新。佛寺中香火旺盛,善男信女甚