Genetic essentialism, neuroessentialism, and stigma: commentary on Dar-Nimrod and Heine (2011)

Dar-Nimrod and Heine (2011) presented a masterfully broad review of the implications of genetic essentialism for understandings of human diversity. This commentary clarifies the reasons that essentialist thinking has problematic social consequences and links genetic forms of essentialism to those invoking neural essences. The mounting evidence that these forms of essentialist thinking contribute to the stigma of mental disorder is reviewed. Genetic and neuroessentialisms influence media portrayals of scientific research and distort how they are interpreted by laypeople. The common thread of these essentialisms is their tendency to deepen social divisions and promote forms of social segregation.     

Pharmacological cognitive enhancers: comment on Smith and Farah (2011)

Smith and Farah (2011) provided a thought-provoking and perhaps deliberately provocative literature review of the use of stimulants to improve cognitive functioning in humans. They addressed the apparently increasing willingness of individuals mostly in the United States to use stimulants for this purpose and then summarized published literature that explores whether stimulants actually improve specific aspects of neurocognitive function. Although calling for more research, they tentatively concluded that stimulants indeed may be "smart pills" for some people under certain circumstances. This comment emphasizes that they never actually defined the desired qualities of a smart pill, seemed to accept the unproven axiom that slight improvements in specific tests constitute meaningful enhancement of intelligence, and failed to consider the possible costs to individuals and to society of promoting the use of this class of medications for such a purpose.     

The media do matter: comment on Steinberg and Monahan (2011)

Steinberg and Monahan's (2011) reanalysis of the Teen Media longitudinal survey of adolescents does not meet prevailing standards for propensity score analysis and therefore does not undermine the original conclusions of the Brown, L'Engle, Pardun, Guo, Kenneavy, and Jackson (2006) analysis. The media do matter in the sexual socialization of adolescents.     

Problematic constructs and cultural-mediation: A comment on Heaven, Ciarrochi and Leeson (2011)

A recent study [Heaven, Ciarrochi & Leeson, (2011). Cognitive ability, right-wing authoritarianism, and social dominance orientation: A five-year longitudinal study amongst adolescents. Intelligence, 39, 15-21] finds evidence that amongst an Australian student sample, low g and verbal ability are predictive of Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and that low verbal ability is predictive of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO). They speculate that those high on RWA might expend little effort in information processing, exhibit simplified judgments and (in the case of SDO) possess lower social competence. RWA and SDO are primarily measures of attitudes and it is known that explicit attitudes can be wholly at variance to implicit orientations. The finding is reinterpreted in light of the cultural-mediation hypothesis, whereby high-IQ individuals possessing flexible and adaptable personalities explicitly process the political and social attitudes that best resonate with culturally constructed norms. It is concluded that the cultural-mediation hypothesis should be the default hypothesis in explaining the direction of the correlation between IQ and political orientation. Only when potential cultural mediators have been ruled out should other hypotheses be considered.     

Testing mixture models of transitive preference: comment on Regenwetter, Dana, and Davis-Stober (2011)

This article contrasts 2 approaches to analyzing transitivity of preference and other behavioral properties in choice data. The approach of Regenwetter, Dana, and Davis-Stober (see record 2011-00732-003) assumes that on each choice, a decision maker samples randomly from a mixture of preference orders to determine whether A is preferred to B. In contrast, Birnbaum and Gutierrez (2007) assumed that within each block of trials, the decision maker has a true set of preferences and that random errors generate variability of response. In this latter approach, preferences are allowed to differ between people; within-person, they might differ between repetition blocks. Both approaches allow mixtures of preferences, both assume a type of independence, and both yield statistical tests. They differ with respect to the locus of independence in the data. The approaches also differ in the criterion for assessing the success of the models. Regenwetter et al. fitted only marginal choice proportions and assumed that choices are independent, which means that a mixture cannot be identified from the data. Birnbaum and Gutierrez fitted choice combinations with replications; their approach allows estimation of the probabilities in the mixture. It is suggested that researchers should separate tests of the stochastic model from the test of transitivity. Evidence testing independence and stationarity assumptions is presented. Available data appear to fit the assumption that errors are independent better than they fit the assumption that choices are independent.     

Deconstructing multicultural counseling competencies research: comment on Owen, Leach, Wampold, and Rodolfa (2011)

The present article offers a commentary and critique of the research presented by J. Owen, M. M. Leach, B. Wampold and E. Rodolfa (2011). Given the complexity of the research methodology, findings, and conclusions, the authors provide a concise summary of findings, study limitations, and conclusions followed by a detailed critique of the study. The authors respect and appreciate the ambitious efforts made by Owen et al. to address gaps in the literature regarding outcome research using client ratings of counselors' multicultural counseling competencies (MCCs). The authors provide a critical analysis of some of J. Owen et al.'s specific conclusions and offer alternative conclusions based on conceptual and methodological bases. The authors use the opportunity to comment on this study as a means of advancing recommendations regarding future research on MCCs that might contribute to substantive revisions to the long-standing theoretical foundation in this area.     

Introspecting in the spirit of William James: comment on Fox, Ericsson, and Best (2011)

Fox, Ericsson, and Best's (2011) thoughtful justification of the use of think-aloud protocols for revealing the stream of consciousness comes on the centennial of the death of William James, history's greatest practitioner and advocate of introspection. This confluence naturally invites speculation about how James might have responded to the analysis of Fox et al. I suggest that although James would likely view the think-aloud procedure as a scientifically rigorous form of introspection, he would also admonish us not to overlook its limitations. Most notably, although the think-aloud procedure readily captures substantive verbal thoughts, it is less able to capture inchoate cognitions. The conclusion that verbal protocols are nonreactive also raises several additional issues. First, the nonreactivity of thinking aloud does not necessarily speak to its validity. Second, the conclusion that verbal protocols are benign is at odds with recent findings in which verbalization impairs performance on various tasks. I suggest that whereas James might express some concerns regarding aspects of conscious thought that may be overlooked by the think-aloud procedure as well as some caution regarding the possible situations in which thinking aloud might still be reactive, he would almost certainly be pleased to see introspection finally getting the scientific grounding that it deserves.     

Handedness and drawing: attempting to complete the picture: a comment on Bruckner, et al. (2011)

In a recent study, Bruckner, Kastner-Koller, Deimann, and Voracek (2011) investigated the relationship between hand preference and drawing during preschool years. The present study offers interpretations in a larger framework which could contribute to the better understanding of that relationship, and provides future directions in this area.     

Propensity scoring and the relationship between sexual media and adolescent sexual behavior: comment on Steinberg and Monahan (2011)

Longitudinal research has demonstrated a link between exposure to sexual content in media and subsequent changes in adolescent sexual behavior, including initiation of intercourse and various noncoital sexual activities. Based on a reanalysis of one of the data sets involved, Steinberg and Monahan (2011) have challenged these findings. However, propensity score approaches-especially the version of this method used by Steinberg and Monahan, which lacks covariates-do not necessarily result in more accurate estimates of treatment effects than does the regression with covariates approach employed by prior research. There are also a number of problems with the specific set of analyses presented by Steinberg and Monahan and the conclusion they draw from them. In contrast to Steinberg and Monahan's claim, there is substantial evidence of an association between sexual media exposure and adolescent sexual initiation.     

The case for subphonemic attenuation in inner speech: comment on Corley, Brocklehurst, and Moat (2011)

Corley, Brocklehurst, and Moat (2011) recently demonstrated a phonemic similarity effect for phonological errors in inner speech, claiming that it contradicted Oppenheim and Dell's (2008) characterization of inner speech as lacking subphonemic detail (e.g., features). However, finding an effect in both inner and overt speech is not the same as finding equal effects in inner and overt speech. In this response, I demonstrate that Corley et al.'s data are entirely consistent with the notion that inner speech lacks subphonemic detail and that each of their experiments exhibits a Similarity × Articulation interaction of about the same size that Oppenheim and Dell (2008, 2010) reported in their work. I further show that the major discrepancy between the labs' data lies primarily in the magnitude of the main effect of phonemic similarity and the overall efficiency of error elicitation, and demonstrate that greater similarity effects are associated with lower error rates. This leads to the conclusion that successful speech error research requires finding a sweet spot between too much randomness and not enough data.     

Between-individual variability and interpretation of associations between neurophysiological and behavioral measures in aging populations: comment on Salthouse (2011)

Salthouse (2011) argued that (a) variance between individuals on cognitive test scores remains constant between 20 and 90 years of age and (b) widely recognized problems of deducing functional relationships from patterns of correlations between measurements become especially severe for neuropsychological indices, especially for gross indices of age-related brain changes (e.g., losses of brain volume or increases in white matter lesions). I argue that between-individual variability on cognitive tests does increase with age and provides useful information on causes of age-related cognitive decline. I suggest that problems of inference from correlations are just as difficult for behavioral as for neurophysiological indices and that inclusion, in analyses, of even gross measures of brain status such as loss of volume and white matter lesions can correct misinterpretations that occur when only behavioral data are examined.     

Pancultural self-enhancement reloaded: a meta-analytic reply to Heine (2005)

C. Sedikides, L. Gaertner, and Y. Toguchi (2003) reported findings favoring the universality of self-enhancement. S. J. Heine (2005) challenged the authors' research on evidential and logical grounds. In response, the authors carried out 2 meta-analytic investigations. The results backed the C. Sedikides et al. (2003) theory and findings. Both Westerners and Easterners self-enhanced tactically. Westerners self-enhanced on attributes relevant to the cultural ideal of individualism, whereas Easterners self-enhanced on attributes relevant to the cultural ideal of collectivism (in both cases, because of the personal importance of the ideal). Self-enhancement motivation is universal, although its manifestations are strategically sensitive to cultural context. The authors respond to other aspects of Heine's critique by discussing why researchers should empirically validate the comparison dimension (individualistic vs. collectivistic) and defending why the better-than-average effect is a valid measure of self-enhancement.     

Only time will tell: cross-sectional studies offer no solution to the age-brain-cognition triangle: comment on Salthouse (2011)

Salthouse (2011) critically reviewed cross-sectional and longitudinal relations among adult age, brain structure, and cognition (ABC) and identified problems in interpretation of the extant literature. His review, however, missed several important points. First, there is enough disparity among the measures of brain structure and cognitive performance to question the uniformity of B and C vertices of the ABC triangle. Second, age differences and age changes in brain and cognition are often nonlinear. Third, variances and correlations among measures of brain and cognition frequently vary with age. Fourth, cross-sectional comparisons among competing models of ABC associations cannot disambiguate competing hypotheses about the structure and the range of directed and reciprocal relations between changes in brain and behavior. We offer the following conclusions, based on these observations. First, individual differences among younger adults are not useful for understanding the aging of brain and behavior. Second, only multivariate longitudinal studies, age-comparative experimental interventions, and a combination of the two will deliver us from the predicaments of the ABC triangle described by Salthouse. Mediation models of cross-sectional data represent age-related differences in target variables but fail to approximate time-dependent relations; thus, they do not elucidate the dimensions and dynamics of cognitive aging.     

Anticipating and training for the worst-case metabolic scenario: a comment on Del Vecchio, Hirata, and Franchini (2011)

Del Vecchio, Hirata, and Franchini (2011) studied the effort: pause ratio of mixed martial arts by analyzing 26 bouts in two separate mixed martial arts events in Sao Paulo, Brazil. They referenced research identifying effort:pause ratios from other combat sports ranging from 10:1 (Brazilian Jiu Jitsu), 2:1 (judo and wrestling), and 1:3/1:4 (taekwondo). The authors identified an effort:pause ratio ranging from 1:2 to 1:4 in the bouts they analyzed, and suggested and described training programs that resemble this ratio. It is important for coaches to anticipate the most challenging metabolic mixed martial arts scenario and to create training programs that mimic that profile. Del Vecchio and associates' research is an important first step in gathering information which can help enhance training programs for injury prevention and performance enhancement.     

Fictions and facts about evolutionary approaches to human behavior: comment on Lickliter and Honeycutt (2003)

Six misconceptions about evolutionary approaches to human behavior are exposed. Evidence is adduced to support the assertions that evolutionary approaches do not (a) adopt a reductionistic "gene-centered" level of analysis, (b) assume that natural selection is the only process that creates and designs ontogenetic processes and phenotypic outcomes, (c) assume that genes are the only agents responsible for the transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic traits and characteristics, (d) assume that genes are self-contained and impervious to extragenetic influences, (e) posit a strong form of genetic determinism, or (f) pay lip service to the role of the environment. Building straw men and knocking them down is an inherently destructive enterprise; integrating different approaches is a more constructive way of contributing to the growth of knowledge.     

Why psychologists must change the way they analyze their data: the case of psi: comment on Bem (2011)

Does psi exist? D. J. Bem (2011) conducted 9 studies with over 1,000 participants in an attempt to demonstrate that future events retroactively affect people's responses. Here we discuss several limitations of Bem's experiments on psi; in particular, we show that the data analysis was partly exploratory and that one-sided p values may overstate the statistical evidence against the null hypothesis. We reanalyze Bem's data with a default Bayesian t test and show that the evidence for psi is weak to nonexistent. We argue that in order to convince a skeptical audience of a controversial claim, one needs to conduct strictly confirmatory studies and analyze the results with statistical tests that are conservative rather than liberal. We conclude that Bem's p values do not indicate evidence in favor of precognition; instead, they indicate that experimental psychologists need to change the way they conduct their experiments and analyze their data.     

Multicultural counseling competencies: an analysis of research on clients' perceptions: comment on Owen, Leach, Wampold, and Rodolfa (2011)

J. Owen, M. M. Leach, B. Wampold, and E. Rodolfa (see record 2010-24976-001) tested the hypotheses that (a) some therapists express more multicultural competencies (MCCs) more than other therapists and (b) clients' perceptions of their therapists' MCCs are a function of specific client or therapeutic factors. In the present analysis, the authors critiqued 3 major components of the study: conceptual and methodological underpinnings, interpretation of research findings, and implications for future research. Although the authors agree with the importance of this line of research, the authors also believe that some of the researchers' underlying assumptions are worthy of examination; alternate interpretations of the findings are possible, and several recommendations for future research are imperative.     

Social class and models of agency: Independent and interdependent agency as educational (dis)advantage

Social class continues to be associated with achievement in school and attendance in university and higher education. This qualitative study explores this phenomenon, and reports three focus group interviews with middle and working class secondary school students, in Ireland. We explore cultural and identity factors in educational settings. Specifically, our analysis orients to the models of agency experienced by these students. Middle class participants express independent agency in education, through norms of choice, control, and freedom from constraints. In contrast, working class students orient towards an interdependent model of agency and express psychological, social, and material barriers to opportunity in education. However, independent neo‐liberal individualising and meritocratic discourses were expressed by both groups, suggesting the models are complicated and nuanced. Nevertheless, it is concluded that cultural fit and identity compatibility in educational settings, broadly, constitute middle class advantages and working class disadvantages.