Figural after-effects and apparent size

Sutherland (1954) obtained results which suggest that when the retinal size of test and inspection figures is equal, the direction of the FAE may be determined by the relative apparent sizes of the two figures. Other investigators have reproduced this result when exactly the same conditions were used: when the conditions were changed the result was not obtained. In the present paper these results are discussed and an attempt is made to determine why the effect is not obtained with small variations in the experimental conditions. It is further shown that some FAE phenomena cannot be explained by the two main existing theories; these phenomena could be explained if some analysis of the stimulus is being performed before the stage of the nervous system at which the process underlying FAEs occurs. Some recent physiological evidence (Hubel and Wiesel, 1959) supports this hypothesis. If this hypothesis is correct, it is likely that further work on FAEs determined by apparent size may help to throw light on the physiological mechanisms underlying size constancy, and some further experiments are suggested.     

Wakes and spokes: new motion-induced brightness illusions

Under certain conditions, high-contrast moving figures induce adjacent illusory regions, 'wakes' and 'spokes', which have contrast polarity opposite the inducing figures. In this paper we document properties of these novel phenomena. When the illusions are induced by a moving bar, spokes appear on the side of the bar closer to fixation and connect the bar to the fixation point, regardless of the momentary position of the bar or whether it is moving to the left or to the right. Although spokes often extend up to the fixation point, they never extend beyond it. This is not due to blocking of the spoke's spread by the fixation point, because in another experiment spokes extend directly through an intervening figure. Whereas spokes emanate from the end of a horizontally moving bar closest to fixation, wakes emanate from the end farthest from fixation. In contrast to spokes, wakes do not show a towards-fixation bias. Instead, the wake's end trails the position of the bar, like a ship's wake. The higher the bar velocity, the more the end of the wake appears to trail it, suggesting that wakes are caused by a process which spreads from the edge of moving figures. Wakes and spokes, as distinct illusions, should provide significant constraints on theories of human motion and brightness perception processes.     

A theory of visual interpolation in object perception

We describe a new theory explaining the perception of partly occluded objects and illusory figures, from both static and kinematic information, in a unified framework. Three ideas guide our approach. First, perception of partly occluded objects, perception of illusory figures, and some other object perception phenomena derive from a single boundary interpolation process. These phenomena differ only in respects that are not part of the unit formation process, such as the depth placement of units formed. Second, unit formation from static and kinematic information can be treated in the same general framework. Third, spatial and spatiotemporal discontinuities in the boundaries of optically projected areas are fundamental to the unit formation process. Consistent with these ideas, we develop a detailed theory of unit formation that accounts for most cases of boundary perception in the absence of local physical specification. According to this theory, discontinuities in the first derivative of projected edges are initiating conditions for unit formation. A formal notion of relatability is defined, specifying which physically given edges leading into discontinuities can be connected to others by interpolated edges. Intuitively, relatability requires that two edges be connectable by a smooth, monotonic curve. The roots of the discontinuity and relatability notions in ecological constraints on object perception are discussed. Finally, we elaborate our approach by discussing related issues, some new phenomena, connections to other approaches, and issues for future research.     

Reid’s Account of the “Geometry of Visibles”: Some Lessons from Helmholtz

Drawing on work done by Helmholtz, I argue that Reid was in no position to infer that objects appear as if projected on the inner surface of a sphere, or that they have the geometric properties of such projections even though they do not look concave towards the eye. A careful consideration of the phenomena of visual experience, as further illuminated by the practice of visual artists, should have led him to conclude that the sides of visible appearances either look straight, in which case their angles appear to approximate Euclidean measures, or their angles do not appear to approximate Euclidean measures for straight line figures, in which case their sides do not look straight.     

Subconscious image recognition

Two experiments demonstrate the influence of an unconscious form of information storage on behavior. In the learning phase, subjects see pictures in which other pictures or figures are embedded. The experimental procedure makes sure that these embedded figures cannot be seen (or consciously identified) by the subjects. Nevertheless, the results of a perceptual identification task in the test phase prove that information of these unidentified figures has been stored by the subjects: In a clarification task, subjects were shown the cut out, previously embedded figures and other pictures which they had to name as quickly as possible. The experimental group, which had seen the pictures with the embedded figures in the learning phase, was much quicker in responding to the naming task than the control group, which had not seen these pictures before. These results are discussed in terms of a distinction between sensori-perceptual and conceptual information storage in humans. Conceptual information is characterized as meaningful, symbolic, and accessible to conscious reasoning and remembering, while sensori-perceptual information is seen as nonsymbolic, modality-bound, and restricted to unconscious reactivations in data-driven process repetitions.     

The role of discontinuities in the perception of subjective figures

Recently we proposed a theory of visual interpolation (Kellman & Shipley, in press) that addresses a variety of unit formation phenomena, including the perception of partly occluded objects and subjective figures. A basic notion of the theory is that discontinuities in the first derivative of projected edges are the initiating conditions for interpolation of boundaries that are not physically specified. In this paper, we report four experiments in which this claim was tested in the domain of subjective figures. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that discontinuities in the first derivative of the edges of inducing elements have a clear effect on the frequency of report and the perceived clarity of simple subjective figures. Similar effects are found when unfamiliar subjective figures and inducing elements are used (Experiment 3). Experiment 4 rules out the possibility that the discontinuities in the first derivative merely add to the clarity of subjective figures. These experiments suggest that first-order discontinuities play a central role in unit formation.     

Are size illusions in simple line drawings affected by shading?

In a number of simple line drawings, such as the Müller-Lyer or Judd figures, we can experience strong distortions of perceived space-geometric illusions. One way of explaining these effects is based on the perspective information that can be read from the line drawings. For instance, the 'inappropriate constancy scaling' theory advocates that the inferred three-dimensional structure of the pictured object is used by the perceptual system to adjust the size of line-drawing components. Such a theory would predict that additional depth cues, for instance shading added to line drawings, should affect these illusions because they influence the three-dimensional appearance. We present here systematic measurements of the magnitude of length misjudgments in horizontal Müller-Lyer and Judd figures for three configurations: (i) pure line drawings, and with shading attached to (ii) the top, and (iii) the bottom of the figures. The latter two configurations are unambiguously interpreted as 'folded' structures with a horizontal edge behind the image plane or protruding from it, respectively. While we could not find any effect of shading in our experimental data, we did observe a length misjudgment in Judd figures that corresponds precisely to the asymmetry that can be observed in the Müller-Lyer illusion for inward and outward fins. This pattern of results is not consistent with notions of inappropriate constancy scaling but is fully coherent with the view that neural filtering mechanisms, which are affecting the perceived position of line intersections, are responsible for this type of geometrical illusions.     

The Perceived Nature and Incidence of Dysfunctional Assessment Center Features and Processes

The aims of this research are to identify, for the first time, the dysfunctional features and processes perceived to take place in assessment centers (ACs) from multiple perspectives (assessment center designers, assessors, and candidates) and to indicate the frequency of these phenomena. Two surveys were conducted in this study. In the first, a wide variety of dysfunctional processes and events were identified, and, in the second, many of these processes are reported to occur with regularity. Based on these findings, it is proposed that ACs should be construed, researched, and managed, not only as large‐scale psychometric systems, but also as complex administrative, social, and political events susceptible to a broad range of dysfunctional phenomena.     

Hey,How did I become a Role Model? Privacy and the Extent of Role‐Model Obligations

Much of the public criticism of many public figures, such as that of Michael Phelps, Lindsay Lohan, and Bill Clinton, accuses those persons of failing as role models. The criticism often ascribes to public figures role‐model status in a general sense that encompasses their behaviour in aspects of life beyond the fields for which they are known. I argue that, because of privacy considerations, we are unjustified in ascribing broadly to public figures role‐model status in the general sense. Unless public figures hold themselves out to be role models regarding other aspects of life, we are justified in demanding only that they be good role models with respect to their behaviour in their particular fields. To make my arguments, I demonstrate that: 1) we are justified in ascribing role‐model status to individuals far less often than most believe; 2) legitimate role‐model obligations typically do not extend as far into role models' lives as most believe; and, 3) those who try to convince public figures to be better role models should redirect their efforts toward educating young people about who are proper role models and about what aspects of role‐models' lives young people should imitate.     

Satiation or availability? Effects of attention,memory, and imagery on the perception of ambiguous figures

The prolonged-inspection technique has been used to demonstrate effects of satiation on the perception of ambiguous figures. We propose that the inspection phase, in which subjects view an unambiguous version of the stimulus prior to observing the ambiguous figure, does not create neural fatigue but rather provides a context in which the alternative percept is apprehended and gains perceptual strength through processes such as imagination or memory. The consequent availability of the alternative organization drives the perceptual phenomena that have been thought to reflect satiation. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that (1) preexperimental exposure to the target figures and (2) allocation of attention to the-inspection figures-were both necessary in order to obtain results similar to those predicted by the satiation model. In Experiment 2, we obtained similar results, finding that effects of prior inspection were greater the greater the amount and availability of information regarding the alternative percept during the inspection phase. Subjects who generated visual images of the noninspected alternative during inspection yielded results comparable to those from subjects to whom both versions were presented isuaily.     

Asymmetric priming effects in visual processing of occlusion patterns

In three experiments, we examined the effect of temporal context in amodal completion of partly occluded nontarget figures. In a primed same-different task, test pairs were preceded by a sequence of two primes, one of which was a single, the other a composite figure. Single figures reappeared in the composite ones, which also contained a square that could be viewed, alternatively, as an occluder or as yielding a mosaic fit to the other shape. To measure context influences between single and composite figures, both of which were nontargets, we studied their combined effect as primes on the test pairs of the same-different task, expecting that congruency between both primes should lead to a superadditive priming effect on the task. We found that single figures presented first provided facilitatory context for local and global occlusion as well as for mosaic interpretations of subsequently presented composite figures. These effects occurred only when the composite figure was presented briefly (50 msec). No superadditive facilitation occurred when composite figures were presented first and single figures followed them. The restriction of the effect to short presentations and its temporal asymmetry were taken as evidence that prior context biases possible occlusion interpretations during the process of completion, rather than afterward.     

Errors towards the perpendicular in children's copies of angular figures: a test of the bisection interpretation

Children distort angular figures so that the constituent angles are nearer 90 degrees than they should be. This could be due to a perpendicular bias or a bisection bias, or to both. A study is reported which was designed to establish whether a perpendicular bias would appear independently of bisection. Twenty four-year-old children were tested on two types of angular figure: (i) a baseline with another line joining at the end at 45 degrees, 90 degrees, or 135 degrees and (ii) a baseline with another line joining at the middle at 45 degrees or 90 degrees. Perpendicular errors were obtained both for 'end' and for 'middle' figures, but overall more strongly for 'middle' figures. However, while 90 degrees 'middle' figures were copied more accurately than 45 degrees/135 degrees figures, this effect was only obtained for vertical and horizontal presentations of 'end' figures, and was reversed for oblique presentations. Also, for 'end' figures, directional errors varied with subtended-line orientation, whereas for 'middle' figures they varied with baseline orientation. It is concluded that although errors towards the perpendicular do occur with single-angle figures, angle equalisation may take place when there are two adjacent angles in the figure. One interpretation of the differing orientation effects is that in 'middle' figures strong internal relational forces produce a distortion that varies with the angle at which the figure is viewed, whereas in 'end' figures the absence of relational forces within the figure leads to a stronger influence from external cues.     

Carry-over effects in face recognition: Processing mode or attentional window?

This study investigates whether or not the dominant processing mode (global or local) in a Navon task is carried over to a face recognition task when the dominant processing mode (configural or featural) in an encoding phase is manipulated. In Experiment 1, Navon figures that were equal in size to a facial photograph were prepared. Participants performed better on the face recognition task after reading large letters in the Navon figures than after reading small letters when configural processing was required in the encoding phase. In Experiment 2, Navon figures that were equal in size to the parts of a face were prepared. The performance after reading large letters did not differ from that after reading small letters. This suggests that both the dominant processing mode in Navon tasks and the size of Navon figures should be considered when discussing the effects of Navon tasks in face recognition.     

A critical discussion of Kellman and Shipley's (1991) theory of occlusion phenomena

Summary Kellman and Shipley (1991) recently advanced a new theory to explain the perception of partly occluded objects and illusory figures. The theory is a formalization of the Gestalt law of good continuation. In this paper we describe their account of occlusion when the contour of the occluded is completely specified by a display. Next, we outline some critical objections and present a number of counterexamples. Finally, we compare their theory with Wouterlood and Boselie's (in this issue) model of occlusion phenomena, which might also be considered as a formalization of the law of good continuation.     

The non-mirroring mother and the missing paternal dimension in a case of narcissistic disturbance

SUMMARY

Heinz Kohut (1971, 1972, 1977), has developed an innovative framework for understanding the dynamics and genesis of disturbances in the sense of self — broadly speaking, the area of narcissistic disturbance. He has emphasized the failure of the primary objects (in his terms ‘selfobjects’) to be available as responsive mirroring figures who can also be idealized. The role of oedipal conflict is specifically de-emphasized. In this paper a patient is described for whom the factors noted by Kohut were relevant, but as well as these, issues related to a failure to negotiate the oedipal position and a denial of the primal scene were also crucial. These phenomena are not described in Kohut's writings. For this patient, the exclusion or foreclosure of the ‘paternal dimension’ (Chiland 1982) left her with a fundamental defect in psychic structure with profound ramifications. In addition various features of the transference pointed to a failure of early communication via projective identification and maternal containment, of the kind described by Bion (1962). This process is compared with that subsumed by Kohut's concept of mirroring.     

Acting rightly: Three dimensions of moral conduct

Philosophical literature in normative ethics has tended to concentrate on (1) what we should do—what acts we should perform—or (2) virtues of character, understood as leading to the right deeds or (3), as most notable in Kant, the importance of motivation appraising agents and actions. All these elements—actions, virtues, and motives—are ethically significant. But there is a dimension of moral responsibility that should be given a place beside obligations to act, virtues of character, and appraisability of actions in relation to their motivation. It is the manner in which actions are performed. This can be right or wrong, an object of intention, and behavior for a reason; and it is important for assessing moral virtue. This paper explores manners of action, shows why they apparently do not reduce to kinds of actions, and proposes an account of their importance. The result is a wider conception of acting rightly than the common understanding on which it simply doing the right thing, a partial account of how acting rightly figures in the content of intention, and a sketch of the moral dimensions of the manners in which we act.     

An exploratory study of the draw-a-person as a measure of racial identity.

The race of the figure drawn on the Draw-A-Person Test is proposed as a measure of acceptance of racial identity. Reliability and validity of this measure were explored in a two-part study. Part 1 confirmed the hypothesis that the race of the figure drawn is related to the race of the child producing the drawing. Comparison of the figures drawn by black (n = 157) and white (n = 167) children confirmed three other hypotheses based on the voluminous literature suggesting that black children are less accepting of their racial group membership than whites. These hypotheses were: (a) whites should be more likely to draw figures that are clearly white than blacks are to draw figures that are clearly black, (b) whites should be less likely to draw blacks than blacks are to draw whites, and (c) blacks should be more likely to avoid giving clear indication of the race of the figures they draw than are whites. Inter-rater reliability for the race of the figure drawn was .79. Five weeks after the initial drawing, a subsample of 28 black children drew a second figure and performed a picture choice task designed to assess acceptance of racial identity. The race of the figure drawn showed a test-retest reliability of .53 and correlated significantly with the other measure of racial identity (r27 = .39).     

Reconsidering Reid's Geometry of Visibles

In his Inquiry , Reid claims, against Berkeley, that there is a science of the perspectival shapes of objects ('visible figures'): they are geometrically equivalent to shapes projected onto the surfaces of spheres. This claim should be understood as asserting that for every theorem regarding visible figures there is a corresponding theorem regarding spherical projections; the proof of the theorem regarding spherical projections can be used to construct a proof of the theorem regarding visible figures, and vice versa. I reconstruct Reid's argument for this claim, and expose its mathematical underpinnings: it is successful, and depends on no empirical assumptions to which he was not entitled about the workings of the human eye. I also argue that, although Reid may or may not have been aware of it, the geometry of spherical projections is not the only geometry of visible figure.     

Adaptation effects and reversible figures: A comment on Horlitz and O’Leary

In a recent article, Horlitz and O’Leary (1993) offer a reinterpretation of the results of several studies over the past 40 years that have employed the prolonged-inspection technique in the investigation of reversible figures. Specifically, they contend that, contrary to the favored interpretation of neural adaptation effects, the results of these studies reveal the combined influence of such topdown processes as attention and perceptual learning as well as such methodological difficulties as unwanted demand characteristics. In this note, we examine their analysis of the literature, their alternative theoretical model, and the supporting conclusions they draw from their two experiments. We argue that there is considerable evidence from a variety of studies for the joint role of bottom-up and top-down processes in reversible figures. Moreover, we propose that Horlitz and O’Leary’s own research, rather than eliminating the possibility of neural-adaptation effects, is best conceptualized as providing additional evidence for the role of higher-order processes in these phenomena.