Testing predictive control of movement in children with developmental coordination disorder using converging operations

Recent systematic reviews (Wilson et al., 2013, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 55, 217; Adams et al., 2014, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 47C, 225) suggest that a common underlying problem in developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is the internal modelling deficit. The study presented here is the first to test this hypothesis using a within‐subject design, assessing motor imagery, action planning, and rapid online control (ROC) in a sample of children screened rigorously for DCD. Participants were 66 children; 33 children (26 boys and seven girls) aged 6–11 years in the DCD group and 33 controls (gender and age matched). Motor imagery was assessed with the hand rotation task (HRT), action planning with an end‐state comfort effect test, and ROC with the double‐step pointing task. Results showed that children with DCD were slower and less accurate than controls in the HRT. Reduced forward planning for comfortable end‐state was also shown in DCD. Finally, no group differences were found on the ROC task. Collectively, children with DCD manifest deficits in the internal modelling of movements, but this varies under different task constraints, particularly those related to movement complexity.     

The influence of task paradigm on motor imagery ability in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have difficulty imagining movements such that they conform to the customary temporal constraints of real performance. We examined whether this ability is influenced by the choice of task used to elicit motor imagery (MI). Performance of typically developing (TD) (n = 30) and children with DCD (n = 30) was compared on two tasks: the Visually Guided Pointing Task (VGPT) and the Computerized Virtual Radial Fitts Task (C-VRFT). Since the VGPT places higher demands on executive functions like working memory but requires less spatial planning, we reasoned that the C-VRFT would provide a purer measure of motor imagery (or simulation). Based on our earlier work, we predicted that imagery deficits in DCD would more likely manifest on the C-VRFT. Results showed high correlations between tasks in terms of executed and imagined movement time suggest that both tasks measure MI ability. However, group differences were more pronounced in the imagined condition of the radial Fitts’ task. Taken together, the more spatially complex C-VRFT appears to be a more sensitive measure of motor imagery, better discriminating between DCD and TD. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Motor imagery ability and internal representation of movement in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

It has been hypothesised that deficits in the functioning of the mirror neuron system (MNS) and internal modelling may contribute to the motor impairments associated with DCD. These processes can be explored behaviourally through motor imagery paradigms. Motor imagery proficiency of children with and without probable DCD (pDCD) was examined using a complex hand rotation task to explore whether motor imagery strategies could be used during more complex tasks. Forty-four boys aged 7–13 years participated, 22 with pDCD (mean = 9.90 years ± 1.57) and 22 controls (mean = 9.68 years ± 1.53). Participants completed the task twice: with and without motor imagery instructions. Stimuli were presented in two rotational axes – palm/back, and eight 45° rotational steps. Both groups showed evidence of following the biomechanical and postural constraints of actual movements. Responses of children with pDCD were slower and less accurate than controls, with group differences increasing alongside task complexity. A greater impact of biomechanical constraints for accuracy was observed in the DCD group. The response characteristics of children with pDCD likely reflects a reduced capacity to mentally manipulate a body schema and reduced visuo-motor processing capabilities. Behaviourally, these processes are linked to MNS and internal modelling function, suggesting deficits in these systems may contribute to the movement difficulties characteristic of DCD.     

Motor imagery during action observation enhances imitation of everyday rhythmical actions in children with and without developmental coordination disorder

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) exhibit deficits both in imitation and motor imagery (MI) compared to typically developing children. Combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) instructions can however enhance automatic imitation in both groups. In the present study we investigated the effects of AO + MI instructions on intentional imitation in children both with (n = 13) and without DCD (n = 12). On each trial participants observed and/or imagined before executing a familiar rhythmical pantomime action. These target actions were either habitually fast (tooth brushing or window wiping) or habitually slow (paint brushing or face washing), in the vertical or horizontal plane. Within each habitual speed, the target action speed was subtly manipulated across trials (fast vs. slow). Instruction condition was manipulated across three blocks of 16 trials: (1) observe before imitating the target action; (2) observe then imagine the action before imitating; (3) observe while imagining the same action before imitating (AO + MI). Kinematic analyses revealed typically developing children imitated the observed cycle times significantly better than children with DCD. A main effect of instruction showed imitation improved for AO + MI compared to the other two instructions. Within-group analyses found a significant advantage in DCD for AO + MI compared to observe then imagine. In typically developing children, imitation was significantly enhanced for AO + MI compared to observe then imitate. Combined AO + MI instructions therefore represent a promising new approach to refining performance of everyday rhythmical actions in children both with and without DCD, with implications for movement therapy and sports training.     

The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder

The present study examined motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Specifically, it explored whether children with varying degrees of motor impairment differed in their ability to perform motor imagery tasks. Fourty-two children scoring below the 15th percentile on the Movement ABC were split into two groups--DCD severe (DCD-S), scoring on or below the 5th percentile, and DCD mild (DCD-M), scoring from the 6th to 15th percentiles--and compared to 21 age matched controls. Participants performed two motor imagery tasks--hand (performed without and with specific imagery instructions) and whole-body rotation. The results demonstrated that children in the DCD-S group had a generalized motor imagery deficit in that they were less accurate across tasks than controls (and the DCD-M group on the hand task) and showed little benefit when given specific imagery instructions. The DCD-M group appeared capable of performing simpler motor imagery transformations, but were less successful as task complexity increased. Unlike the DCD-S group, the DCD-M group did show some benefit from specific imagery instructions with increases in accuracy on the hand task. These results suggest that a motor imagery deficit does exist in many children with DCD but that its presentation can vary--factors such as the individual child's level of motor impairment and task complexity appear to be linked to the profile of deficits observed, which could explain the inconsistent findings of previous studies. Although this study lends support to the theory that a deficit in internal modeling is an underlying problem for children with DCD, still more research is required to develop the theory further.     

Disrupting somatosensory processing impairs motor execution but not motor imagery

While motor imagery (MI) is thought to be ‘functionally equivalent’ with motor execution (ME), the equivalence of feedforward and feedback mechanisms between the two modalities is unexplored. Here, we tested the equivalence of these mechanisms between MI and ME via two experiments designed to probe the role of somatosensory processing (Exp 1), and cognitive processing (Exp 2). All participants were engaged in a previously established force-matching task adapted for MI. A reference force was applied (on scale of 1–10, with higher numbers indicative of greater force) to one index finger while participants matched the force with their opposite index finger via ME or MI (control conditions). Participants then rated the force on the same scale of 1–10. Exp 1: Participants (N = 27) performed the task with tactile stimulation (ME+TAC, MI+TAC) in addition to control conditions. Exp 2: Participants (N = 26) performed the task in dual-task conditions (ME+COG, MI+COG) in addition to control conditions. Results indicate that (Exp 1) tactile stimulation impaired performance in ME but not MI. Dual-task conditions (Exp 2) were not shown to impair performance in either practice modality. Findings suggest that while somatosensory processing is critical for ME, it is not for MI. Overall we indicate a functional equivalence between feedforward/back mechanisms in MI and ME may not exist.     

Development of motor imagery and anticipatory action planning in children with developmental coordination disorder – A longitudinal approach

Children with impaired motor coordination (or Development Coordination Disorder – DCD) have difficulty with the predictive control of movements, evidenced by cross-sectional studies that show impaired motor imagery and action planning abilities. What remains unclear is whether this deficit in predictive control reflects immaturity of the motor system (a developmental delay) or some deviation from normal development (a disorder). To advance this discussion the present study used a longitudinal design to examine the development of motor imagery and action planning in children with DCD. Thirty children were included in the DCD group (aged 6–11 years) and age- and gender-matched to 30 controls. The DCD group had a mABC-2 score ≤ 16th percentile, the control group > 20th percentile. Motor imagery was assessed with the hand rotation task, action planning with a test for end-state comfort. Children participated in three measurements, with one year in between measurements. Results showed that children with DCD were slower and less accurate than their typically developing peers in all subsequent years but were able to improve their motor imagery ability over time. Furthermore, children with DCD showed less planning for ESC at the start of the present study, but were able to catch up with their peers during two-year follow up. These results exemplify that improvement of motor imagery and action planning ability is possible in DCD, and they lend theoretical support to the use of new training techniques that focus on training motor imagery to improve motor skills in children with DCD.     

Gaze behaviour during walking in young adults with developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundIndividuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) experience difficulty with motor coordination and this affects their daily functioning. Research indicated inferior visuospatial processing and oculomotor control in DCD. As visual information is essential for locomotor control, more insight in the gaze behaviour of this population during walking is required and crucial for gaze training interventions as a possible means to improve daily functioning of children and adults with DCD.AimThis study explored differences and similarities in gaze behaviour during walking between typically developing young adults and those with DCD.Methods and proceduresTen young adults with DCD (age: 22.13 ± 0.64) and ten typically developing individuals (age: 22.00 ± 1.05) completed a walking task in which they had to place their feet on irregularly placed targets wearing eye tracking glasses.Outcomes and resultsIndividuals with DCD walked slower and demonstrated a different gaze strategy compared to their neurotypical peers as they fixated almost each and every target sequentially. Typically developing individuals, on the other hand, directed gaze further along the path and often fixated areas around the targets.Conclusions and implicationsDespite adequate walking performance in daily situations in young adults with DCD, fundamental control deficits persist into adulthood.What this paper adds?This paper is the first to demonstrate differences in gaze behaviour between young adults with DCD and typically developing individuals in a task that resembles a task of daily living, as previous research focused on laboratory tasks. This is a valuable finding as DCD has a clear impact on the daily life. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that the fundamental control deficits of DCD persist into adulthood despite frequent performance and practice of these daily tasks. Lastly, these findings might contribute to the therapeutic potential of gaze training interventions to improve the daily functioning of children and adults with DCD.     

Kinaesthetic imagery ability moderates the effect of an AO+MI intervention on golf putt performance: A pilot study

BackgroundPrevious research has established that motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) independently enhance the performance and learning of motor skills. Recent studies have demonstrated that combining AO and MI (AO + MI) elicits increased activity in motor regions of the brain and enhances performance more than either AO or MI alone. Kinesthetic imagery (KI) ability refers to the ease with which one can sense their own body and imagine how a movement feels during a task (Malouin et al., 2007). KI ability may be of particular importance when engaging with AO + MI as the provision of an external visual stimulus through AO renders the visual component of MI redundant.ObjectiveThe current study aims to add to the emerging body of behavioural evidence demonstrating the performance benefits of AO + MI by exploring the effect of an AO + MI intervention on golf putting performance, as well as exploring the role that KI ability represents in AO + MI effectiveness.MethodRight-handed male golfers (N = 44) of varying skill level performed twenty 15-foot putts before and after a 3.5 min AO + MI intervention (AO + MI group; mean handicap = 7.5, SD = 4.3) or a similarly timed passive reading task (Control group; mean handicap = 11.5, SD = 5.4). Using the MIQ-3 questionnaire, participants in both experimental groups were classified according to kinesthetic imagery ability where: a mean score ≥6 were classified as good imagers. Performance accuracy was measured using mean radial error (MRE), precision was quantified via bivariate error (BVE) and putter kinematics were recorded by SAM Puttlab.ResultsResults from a series of ANCOVAs indicate that good kinesthetic imagers who received the AO + MI intervention were significantly more precise (BVRE) on the putting task than good kinesthetic imagers in the Control group (p = 0.041, d = 0.678). Good kinesthetic imagers in the intervention group also significantly outperformed good kinesthetic imagers in the control group on a measure of speed control (SD of error scores along the axis of progression) in golf putting (p = 0.041).ConclusionsOur results suggest that the presence of AO with MI increases the relevance of kinesthetic cues, that good kinesthetic imagers are able to utilise for subsequent performance benefits during the putting task. We discuss the increased importance of kinesthetic awareness/feel following the intervention as an explanation for such improvements in performance.     

Development of motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder – A goal-directed pointing task

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have difficulties with the predictive control of movements. This was shown in studies that target motor imagery and motor planning, and appears to become particularly evident with increases in task complexity. In this study, we used a complex mental chronometry paradigm to examine the development of motor imagery ability in children with DCD, using a longitudinal design. Thirty children were included in the DCD group (aged 6–11 years) and age- and gender-matched to 30 controls. The DCD group had a Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 score ≤16th percentile and the control group ≥25th percentile. Results of this study showed that children with DCD indeed had a significantly lower correlation between executed and imagined movements. Importantly, the increase in the correlation and linear fit during subsequent measurements was comparable for the DCD and control group. Together, these findings suggest a delayed developmental onset of motor imagery ability in DCD, but a similar rate of development over time compared to the control group. Based on these results, it seems likely that explicit motor imagery instructions can be used to improve predictive control in children with DCD.     

Motor skill learning in children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder

ObjectiveThe question whether children with DCD have motor learning deficits is difficult to answer based on the current body of knowledge. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of practice on motor skill acquisition, retention and transfer in children with and without DCD using a variety of games in a virtual environment.MethodPerformance on a criterion task (Wii ski game) and MABC-2 balance subscore was compared between children with DCD (n = 33) and TD children (n = 28) following 10 weeks of playing active video games. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare changes in the two groups.ResultsThe children with DCD demonstrated lower performance on the criterion task than the TD group (p = 0.031). A time by group interaction indicated that the difference in performance on the criterion task became larger over time (p = 0.039). No differences were found in retention between groups. Large improvement (Cohen d 1.11) was observed for the children with DCD on the MABC-2 balance subscore.ConclusionBased on the criterion task results, typically developing children seem more proficient in learning new skills compared to children with DCD. More research is needed to confirm that children with DCD have a problem to transfer skills to other contexts.     

Driving Behaviour in Young Adults with Developmental Co-ordination Disorder

Between 30 and 70% of children with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) will have persistent daily functioning difficulties in adulthood (Cousins and Smyth 2003). However, few DCD studies have focussed specifically on the stage of emerging adulthood. Driving is an important rite of passage which marks the start of independence from parents. Delay, difficulty or avoidance in learning to drive may all have profound social, practical and psychological implications for the young adult with DCD. The driving experiences of 38 students with DCD and 77 typically developing students aged 17–25 years were examined using a semi-structured questionnaire. Quantitative measures indicate that fewer adults with DCD learn to drive compared to controls and that they show continuing difficulties with distance estimation and parking. Qualitative comments give a valuable insight into the learning and driving experiences of adults with DCD. Differences in the driving behaviour of adults with DCD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are discussed, as it is the need to consider guidance on driving skills when providing a package of care for young adults with DCD.     

Second-order motor planning difficulties in children with developmental coordination disorder

The second-order motor planning ability of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) has often been studied using tasks that require judgements of end-state comfort (ESC). In these studies, children may have chosen to prioritize other aspects of performance (e.g., a comfortable start-posture) over ESC while still being able to complete the goal of the task. This is a limitation that is inherent to previously used ESC paradigms. To avoid this in the present study, 52 children with and without DCD (aged 5–12 years) completed a task that requires second-order motor planning for its successful completion. In the hexagonal knob task, children were instructed to grasp and rotate a hexagonal knob. The rotation angle varied in size: 60°, 120°, 180°, and 240° rotations. Both the 180° and 240° rotation conditions required an uncomfortable starting posture for successful task completion. Results showed that children with DCD were less likely to adjust their initial grip in anticipation of the required rotation angle, resulting in more task failures compared with typically developing (TD) children. Based on this finding we conclude that children with DCD experience genuine second-order motor planning difficulties. Analysis of temporal outcomes, showed that initial reaction time increased with rotation angle, but this was less pronounced for children with DCD than for TD children. There were no between group differences in timing of subsequent events. These results suggest that the difficulties of children with DCD are related to the initial planning process, that is, before the start of the movement.     

Self-modelled versus skilled-peer modelled AO+MI effects on skilled sensorimotor performance: A stage 2 registered report

Action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) are simulation states that have been demonstrated to independently enhance motor skill performance. Historically, AO and MI were examined in isolation from one another; however recent neurophysiological and behavioural evidence indicates that using MI during AO (AO + MI) may be more potent at enhancing performance than either simulation state alone. The AO component of AO + MI is typically delivered via a self-model or skilled-peer model paradigm, via an observation video. The purpose of the proposed study was to further examine the implementation of AO + MI states by directly comparing the effectiveness of self-modelled AO + MI and skilled-peer modelled AO + MI for augmenting performance on a golf putting task with a sample of 56 skilled golfers. Our primary hypothesis was that skilled participants who engaged with a self-model intervention would improve their performance more than those engaging with a skilled-peer model intervention. Results showed no significant differences in putting accuracy or precision improvement following the two conditions. However, the self-model group did significantly improve their club-path kinematics more than the skilled peer-model group. We suggest self-observation combined with MI can facilitate error detection and correction in skilled performers only on aspects of motor control most easily viewed during AO. These findings add to an emerging body of literature outlining the conditions in which AO + MI can effectively enhance sensorimotor skill performance. The stage 1 report can be found at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101683.     

Atypical inter‐hemispheric communication correlates with altered motor inhibition during learning of a new bimanual coordination pattern in developmental coordination disorder

Impairment of motor learning skills in developmental coordination disorder (DCD) has been reported in several studies. Some hypotheses on neural mechanisms of motor learning deficits in DCD have emerged but, to date, brain‐imaging investigations are scarce. The aim of the present study is to assess possible changes in communication between brain areas during practice of a new bimanual coordination task in teenagers with DCD (n = 10) compared to matched controls (n = 10). Accuracy, stability and number of mirror movements were computed as behavioural variables. Neural variables were assessed by electroencephalographic coherence analyses of intra‐hemispheric and inter‐hemispheric fronto‐central electrodes. In both groups, accuracy of the new coordination increased concomitantly with right intra‐hemispheric fronto‐central coherence. Compared to typically developing teenagers, DCD teenagers presented learning difficulties expressed by less stability, no stabilization of the new coordination and a greater number of mirror movements despite practice. These measures correlated with reduced inter‐hemispheric communication, even after practice of the new coordination. For the first time, these findings provide neuro‐imaging evidence of a kind of inter‐hemispheric ‘disconnection’ related to altered inhibition of mirror movements during motor learning in DCD.     

Developmental coordination impairments in adulthood

The aim of this study was to extend the understanding of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) into adulthood. We recruited 19 adults aged between 18 and 65 who had received diagnoses of DCD or dyspraxia or who self-reported as having motor impairments consistent with a history of DCD, together with age- and gender-matched controls. Participants were given tests of manual dexterity, handwriting, construction, obstacle avoidance, dynamic balance, static balance, dual task performance, ball skills, reaction time, movement time and sequencing. As a group, adults with DCD performed more poorly than controls across all tasks. Slowness and variability of movement was a pervasive feature of their performance and many individuals had considerable problems with sequencing and with dual task performance. A discriminant function analysis conducted using six performance measures correctly classified participants as car drivers or non-drivers. Adults do retain motor difficulties and these can exclude them from important activities of daily living.     

An exploratory study of gaze behaviour in young adults with developmental coordination disorder

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is characterized by substantial difficulties with motor coordination to the extent that it has a clear impact on the daily functioning of those who suffer from the disorder. Laboratory-based research indicated impaired oculomotor control in individuals with DCD. However, it is not clear how these oculomotor problems contribute to control and coordination in daily tasks. This study explored differences and similarities in gaze behaviour during reading and cup stacking between young adults with DCD and their matched typically developing counterparts (TD; aged 20–23 years). Gaze behaviour was recorded using eye-tracking, and hand movements were registered using a digital camera. Results of the reading tasks demonstrated similar behaviour between the groups, apart from a lower number of characters recorded per fixation in the DCD group. In cup stacking, the individuals with DCD were slower than their counterparts when three cups had to be displaced to a central target using the dominant hand. The gaze strategy of individuals with DCD involved systematic fixations on the cup or target prior to the hand movement to that cup or target, whereas these alternating saccades between cup and target were less obvious in the TD group. In the bimanual stacking task, where a pyramid of six cups had to be built on a central target using both hands, both groups mainly fixated the central target for the whole duration of the task, without distinct differences in gaze behaviour and duration of performance between individuals with and those without DCD. In conclusion, gaze behaviour of young adults with DCD shows differences from that of their typically developing counterparts that may be related to underlying oculomotor deficits in some but not all daily tasks.     

Motor imagery combined with action observation training optimized for individual motor skills further improves motor skills close to a plateau

The acquisition of high-level motor skills beyond a “plateau” is important in sports training and rehabilitation. We aimed to investigate whether motor skills close to a plateau state can be improved further by performing motor imagery (MI) training while observing movements with difficulty levels optimized for individual motor skills. The subjects were divided randomly into four groups (n = 10 per group): the control group and three groups of MI combined with action observation (MI + AO) training with varying difficulty levels. The task was to rotate the two cork balls 20 times counterclockwise using the left hand. The subjects performed 30 and 10 successful trials of this task before and after MI + AO training, respectively. In the three training groups, MI training was performed while observing videos showing ball rotation movements adjusted to the same level, a moderately higher level, or a remarkably higher level of difficulty than that achieved by the individual subjects. The improvement rate of the ball rotation time after MI + AO training was significantly higher in the moderate-difficulty than in the control group and remarkably higher level of difficulty group. The other two MI + AO training groups did not differ significantly compared with the control group. The vividness of the MI during MI + AO training was significantly greater in the moderate-difficulty vs. the remarkably-high-difficulty group. These results suggest that performing MI training while observing movement at a level that is moderately higher than an individual's ability can promote improvements in motor skills (close to a plateau state) in rehabilitation and sports training. The vividness of MI may be an important index for determining the difficulty level of the movement to be observed during MI + AO training.     

Effect of comorbid developmental dyslexia on oculomotor behavior in children with developmental coordination disorder: A study with the Developmental Eye Movement test

Studies have suggested a dysfunction in oculomotor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). It has been proposed that the Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) test is useful in testing the dyslexics' (DD) oculomotor behavior during reading, in a simple and indirect manner. The present study aimed at exploring the oculomotor behavior in children with DCD as assessed with the DEM test. We thus compared children with DCD to children with DD and to children with both DCD and DD in order to investigate the specificity of the oculomotor difficulties, as measured by the DEM test. Results showed that 1) children with DCD presented mild atypical performance at the DEM test (error z-score only), 2) children with DD presented particularly poor performance at the DEM test, and 3) the co-morbid condition (DCD + DD) did not add to the severity of atypical performance at the DEM test. In sum, children with DCD were the less affected according to the DEM test, and children with DD (isolated or comorbid) presented the most atypical performance. Results at the DEM test did not allow to highlight clear oculomotor atypicalities in DCD. We thus concluded that more research using eye-tracking techniques is needed to explore the nature of oculomotor atypicalities in DCD children, to distinguish DD and DCD oculomotor behavior, and to understand the profile of children with dual diagnosis.     

Perceptions of coordinated movement

BackgroundHumans are highly social creatures who use others' movements to evaluate their social competencies. Smooth movement specifically signals an attractive, trustworthy or competent person. Those with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), have peer relationship difficulties and lower sociometric preference scores. However, the relationship of perception of poor movement coordination to stereotyping has not been directly demonstrated.AimWe aimed to describe typically developing individuals' social stereotyping of individuals with and without DCD from minimal visual cues.Method3D motion capture tracked the movement of four ‘targets’ (two adult males with DCD and two male controls) in a variety of everyday scenarios. Kinematic footage of the target's movements was presented as a point-light-display to 319 typically developing adults who used The Rating Scale of Social Competence to report perceptions of the target's social competencies.ResultsTargets with DCD were rated as having significantly lower social competence (M = 3.37, SD = 0.93) than controls (M = 3.46, SD = 0.89) t(269) = −5.656; p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.34.DiscussionHumans incorporate minimal information on movement fluency to evaluate others' social competencies, including individuals with DCD. Such stereotyping may be automatic and may be an ill-understood mechanism sustaining persistent rejection by peers for individuals with DCD and higher rates of loneliness, isolation and mental disorders. In addition, our study expands research on competence-based stereotyping to a new applied domain, confirming the minimal cues needed to initiate stereotyping of the competencies of others.