Individual differences in the effects of personal space invasion: A test of the Brebner-Cooper model of extraversion

An experiment using invasion of personal space as a means of increasing arousal level tested the hypothesis that extraverts' performance at a relatively ‘inspective’ task would be impaired under conditions of increased arousal while they would perform better than introverts under more ‘responsive’ conditions. The role of N was examined. Results supported predictions drawn from the Brebner-Cooper (1974) model of extraversion.     

The role of personality in crowding research

An analysis of variance was carried out on Ss who were tested with a letter-cancellation task under four experimental conditions, two levels each of crowding and disconfirmation of expectancy. Eight types of Ss were distinguished based on sex and high or low scores on E and N. The crowding situation and disconfirmation of expectancy was found to affect extraverts significantly more than introverts, as predicted by the Brebner-Cooper model. It was confirmed that personality is an important variable in crowding research.     

The role of extraversion in the development of learned helplessness

An experiment is reported which investigated the effect of the individual fdifference variable of introversion-extraversion on a typical learned-helplessness induction procedure. It was found that introverts displayed a much more marked helplessness effect than extraverts, in accord with predictions made by the Brebner-Cooper model of extraversion in terms of inhibition and excitation deriving from stimulus analysis and response organization. It was concluded that there are individual differences in response to uncontrollable outcomes which are not taken into account by the current theories of learned helplessness, and further, that these may be mediated by characteristics of the actual task employed.     

How to use the diffusion model: Parameter recovery of three methods: EZ, fast-dm, and DMAT

Parameter recovery of three different implementations of the Ratcliff diffusion model was investigated: the EZ model (Wagenmakers, van der Maas, & Grasman, 2007), fast-dm (Voss & Voss, 2007), and DMAT (Vandekerckhove & Tuerlinckx, 2007). Their capacity to recover both the mean structure and individual differences in parameter values was explored. The three methods were applied to simulated data generated by the diffusion model, by the leaky, competing accumulator (LCA) model (Usher & McClelland, 2001) and by the linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) model (Brown & Heathcote, 2008). Results show that EZ and DMAT are better capable than fast-dm in recovering experimental effects on parameters. EZ was best in recovering individual differences in parameter values. When data were generated by the LCA model, the diffusion model estimates obtained with all three methods correlated well with corresponding LCA model parameters. No such one-on-one correspondence could be established between parameters of the LBA model and the diffusion model.     

Comparing decision bound and exemplar models of categorization

The performance of a decision bound model of categorization (Ashby, J992a; Ashby & Maddox, in press) is compared with the performance of two exemplar models. The first is the generalized context model (e.g., Nosofsky, 1986, 1992) and the second is a recently proposed deterministic exemplar model (Ashby & Maddox, in press), which contains the generalized context model as a special case. When the exemplars from each category were normally distributed and the optimal decision bound was linear, the deterministic exemplar model and the decision bound model provided roughly equivalent accounts of the data. When the optimal decision bound was nonlinear, the decision bound model provided a more accurate account of the data than did either exemplar model. When applied to categorization data collected by Nosofsky (1986, 1989), in which the category exemplars are not normally distributed, the decision bound model provided excellent accounts of the data, in many cases significantly outperforming the exemplar models. The decision bound model was found to be especially successful when(1) single subject analyses were performed, (2) each subject was given relatively extensive training, and (3) the subject's performance was characterized by complex suboptimalities. These results support the hypothesis that the decision bound is of fundamental importance in predicting asymptotic categorization performance and that the decision bound models provide a viable alternative to the currently popular exemplar models of categorization.     

Emotional valence and arousal effects on memory and hemispheric asymmetries

This study examined predictions based upon the right hemisphere (RH) model, the valence–arousal model, and a recently proposed integrated model (Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007) of emotion processing by testing immediate recall and recognition memory for positive, negative, and neutral verbal stimuli among 35 right-handed women. Building upon methodologies of previous studies, we found that words presented to the right visual field/left hemisphere (RVF/LH) were recalled and recognized more accurately than words presented to the left visual field/right hemisphere (LVF/RH), and we found significant valence by visual field interactions. Some findings were consistent with one of the models evaluated whereas others were consistent with none of the models evaluated. Our findings suggest that an integration of the RH and valence–arousal models may best account for the findings with regard to hemispheric lateralization of memory for emotional stimuli.     

Preventing Nuclear War: Beliefs and Attitudes as Predictors of Disarmist and Deterrentist Behavior1

A survey of peace activists, defense industry workers and psychology students (n= 283) was conducted to evaluate the usefulness of Protection Motivation Theory (Maddux & Rogers, 1983; Rogers, 1975) for predicting the extent and direction (Disarmist vs. Deterrentist) of respondents' efforts to prevent nuclear war. Regression analyses showed that the Protection Motivation model did account for a significant proportion of the variance in disarmist behavior, and that extending the model to include a measure of belief in the inevitability of war improved the model's predictive power. The model did not predict deterrentist advocacy, an outcome that suggests that activism in support of nuclear deterrence may be a response to a perceived threat from an “enemy” rather than a response to the threats represented by nuclear weapons and preparations for war.     

Performance deficits following failure: Integrating motivational and functional aspects of learned helplessness

Abstract

This paper deals with the psychological processes that mediate between repeated, uncontrollable failure on one task and performance deficits on subsequent tasks. A model is presented that integrates Seligman's (1975) motivational and Kuhl's (1981) functional interpretation of performance deficits following failure. The central assumptions of this model were tested in a laboratory study with college students. In accordance with our model, repeated failure (1) increasingly led to task- and solution-irrelevant cognitive activities (state orientation, according to Kuhl) the more it was attributed to internal, stable, and global causes, and (2) led to an increment in effort the more it was attributed to unstable and specific causes. Furthermore, results indicated that the influence of failure on state orientation was partly mediated by the importance subjects attached to the failure, and that the performance on subsequent tasks was influenced by both the motivational (effort) and functional (state orientation) consequences of failure.     

Single-system models and interference in category learning: Commentary on Waldron and Ashby (2001)

In a recent article, Waldron and Ashby (2001) observed that performing a concurrent task caused greater interference in learning a simple one-dimensional categorization rule than in learning a complex three-dimensional one. They argued that this result was incompatible with all existing single-system models of category learning but was as predicted by the multiple-system COVIS model (Ashby, Alfonso-Reese, Turken, & Waldron, 1998). In contrast to Waldron and Ashby’s argument, we demonstrate that the single-system ALCOVE model (Kruschke, 1992) naturally predicts the result by assuming that its selectiveattention learning process is disrupted by the concurrent task.     

Prospective analysis of comorbidity: tobacco and alcohol use disorders

Alcohol use disorders (AUD) and tobacco use disorders (TD) frequently co-occur. The authors examined AUD-TD comorbidity over time using a state-trait (ST) model. The ST model represents variance in AUD/TD as a traitlike factor that spans measurement occasion and identifies distinct sources of variance in AUD-TD comorbidity. The ST model was evaluated on 450 young adults (baseline age = 18.5 years; 51% with family history of alcoholism) assessed 5 times over 7 years. The ST model demonstrated superior fit over a first-order autoregressive model. The tendency to diagnose with AUD and TD was partially explained by family history of alcoholism; this relationship was mediated by childhood stressors, alcohol expectancies, and behavioral undercontrol. Results supported a common third-variable influence (vs. directional) model of comorbidity. The ST model is an important conceptual and methodological approach to the prospective study of comorbidity in general.     

How positive and negative contact experiences relate to identification and acculturation of persons with a migration background: Differentiating between majority,minority, and religious group identity

Badea, Jetten, Iyer, and Er-Rafiy proposed a model that specifies immigrants’ experienced rejection by majority and minority groups and social identification with these groups as predictors of their acculturation attitudes. The present research tested an extended version of this model by assessing (i) both positive and negative contact experiences with majority and minority groups, (ii) social identification with these groups and religious groups, and (iii) acculturation attitudes. We surveyed individuals with Greek (N = 186) and Turkish (N = 138) migration background living in Germany. The proposed model yielded a good fit with the empirical data and showed that positive and negative contact with majority and minority groups predicted minority members’ acculturation attitudes, mediated via identification with the majority, minority, and religious group. Our findings support the extended model and contribute to a broader understanding of contact–identification–acculturation links in the context of migration.     

Accounting for belief bias in a mental model framework: comment on Klauer, Musch, and Naumer (2000)

K. C. Klauer, J. Musch, and B. Naumer (2000; see record 2000-02818-008) presented a general multinomial model of belief bias effects in syllogistic reasoning. They claimed to map a particular mental model account of belief bias (J. V. Oakhill, P. N. Johnson-Laird, & A. Garnham, 1989; see record 1989-38845-001)) onto this model and to show empirically that it is incorrect. The authors argue that this mental model account does not map onto the multinomial model and that it can account for the data presented by Klauer et al. (Experiments 1-4). The authors further argue that additional data Klauer et al. presented in support of a new model of their own (Experiments 5-8) are explained by this mental model account. The mental model account is, therefore, refuted neither by Klauer et al.'s theoretical analysis nor by any of the results they presented. Furthermore, the account can accommodate more recent findings on belief bias in a more satisfactory way than can alternative models that have been proposed.     

Individual differences on speeded cognitive tasks: Comment on Chen,Hale, and Myerson (2007)

Chen, Hale, and Myerson (2007) recently reported a test of the difference engine model (Myerson, Hale, Zheng, Jenkins, & Widaman, 2003). This test evaluated whether the standard deviation (SD) is proportional to the amount of processing—that is, mean reaction time (RT)—in a speeded cognitive task. We show that this evaluation is not a test of the model because its finding is a consequence of relationships in the data. We argue any model structure that produces increasing values of RT as a function of difficulty, with different slopes for different individuals, necessarily produces a correlation between SD and mean RT. We illustrate this with a different model structure—that is, the diffusion model proposed by Ratcliff (1978)—showing that it produces a fan out between fast- and slow-group means and produces the correlation between SD and mean RT that matches the empirical result.     

Health-related quality of life in children and adolescents: subjective well being

The main objective of this study was to build a model, which includes personal and social factors, that helps to highlight factors that promote health-related quality of Life (HRQoL) in children and in adolescents. A sample of 3195 children and adolescents was acquired from 5th and 7th graders from all five Portuguese regions. In this study three independent latent variables were specified--Physical, Psychological and Social and two dependent latent variables were measured: Health behavior and Quality of Life. The integrative model was composed by different components: (1) health-related quality of life, integrated by 8 dimensions from KIDSCREEN-52; (2) health behavior, (3) variables related to physical health; (4) variables related to social health; (5) variables related to psychological health. As results were found strong correlation between psychological dimensions and self-esteem and other factors and a structural equation model was developed. The model presented a RMSEA index of .08. Similarly, adjustment levels for the CFI, NFI and IFI vary above or around .90, which suggests a good adjustment for the hypothesized model. The model presented significant qui-square. This study showed that in all the samples studied, the psychological variables were those that contributed at a superior level to HRQoL.     

Interattitude Structure and Attitude Dynamics

Theories of attitude change have failed to identify the architecture of interattitudinal structures and relate it to attitude change. This article examines two models (a hierarchical and a spatial–linkage model) of interattitudinal structure that explicitly posit consequences for attitude change. An experiment (N= 391) was conducted that manipulated type of hierarchy (explicit versus implicit), whether the hierarchy was primed or not, and the location in the hierarchy to which a message was directed. Whereas the hierarchical model predicts only top–down influence of attitudes on each other, a spatial–linkage model predicts that linked attitudes may influence each other regardless of hierarchical position. The results support the spatial–linkage model in that interattitudinal change is constrained less by a concept's relative position in a hierarchical structure than by the concept's association with other concepts in that structure. Furthermore, within these interattitudinal structures, concepts directly targeted by a persuasive message often exhibit less attitude change than related concepts to which the focal concept appears to be linked. Finally, an explicit hierarchy of concepts appears to facilitate interattitudinal influence much more than an implicit hierarchy of concepts does; the key to this facilitation seems to be the mental accessibility of the organizational structure.     

Making strides in modeling individual differences: reply to Leite, Ratcliff, and White (2007)

Leite, Ratcliff, and White (2007) claimed that the diffusion model (Ratcliff, 1978) could simulate the molar patterns in response times (RTs) from the multiple tasks observed by Chen, Hale, and Myerson (2007). We present our own simulations to clarify the underlying mechanisms and show that, as is predicted by the difference engine model (Myerson, Hale, Zheng, Jenkins, & Widaman, 2003), correlations across tasks are the key to the molar patterns in individual RTs. Although the diffusion model and other sequential-sampling models may be able to accommodate patterns of RTs across tasks like those studied by Chen et al., the difference engine is the only current model that actually predicts them.     

In Praise of a Model but Not Its Conclusions: Commentary on Cooper,Catmur, and Heyes (2012)

Cooper et al. (this issue) develop an interactive activation model of spatial and imitative compatibilities that simulates the key results from Catmur and Heyes (2011) and thus conclude that both compatibilities are mediated by the same processes since their single model can predict all the results. Although the model is impressive, the conclusions are premature because they are based on an incomplete review of the relevant literature and because the model includes some questionable assumptions. Moreover, a competing model (Scheutz & Bertenthal, 2012) is introduced that suggests the two compatibilities are not mediated by the same processes. We propose that more research is necessary before concluding that spatial and imitative compatibilities are mediated by the same processes.     

Compounds,confounds, and models in developmental information processing: A reply to Trabasso and Foellinger

A point by point examination of Trabasso and Foellinger's paper shows their criticisms of my 1970 work to be based on errors of fact (regarding the data I reported) and errors of method (regarding proper procedures for model evaluation). Factual errors are refuted by summarizing crucial data reported in 1970 but ignored by my critics. Errors of method are refuted by contrasting my $\text{CSVI}\text{BE}$ model and data with Trabasso and Foellinger's model and data in the light of the scientific epistemology of model evaluation. The issues of “general” versus “local” models, their “empirical scope,” “number of empirical parameters,” and “simplifying assumptions” are examined. Five ways of evaluating models are distinguished, and in all five my 1970 model is shown to be superior to that of Trabasso and Foellinger. The 1970 data (in light of the controls built into the CSVI task) and new unreported data exhibiting developmental step functions confirm the model of a developmental growth of M (mental energy, working memory), which occurs concurrently with and independently from the growth of executive/control structures. Executive growth alone cannot explain the obtained results.     

Assessing the belief bias effect with ROCs: reply to Dube, Rotello, and Heit (2010)

Dube, Rotello, and Heit (2010) argued (a) that the so-called receiver operating characteristic is nonlinear for data on belief bias in syllogistic reasoning; (b) that their data are inconsistent with Klauer, Musch, and Naumer's (see record 2000-02818-008) model of belief bias; (c) that their data are inconsistent with any of the existing accounts of belief bias and only consistent with a theory provided by signal detection theory; and (d) that in fact, belief bias is a response bias effect. In this reply, we present reanalyses of Dube et al.'s data and of old data suggesting (a) that the receiver operating characteristic is linear for binary "valid" versus "invalid" responses, as employed by the bulk of research in this field; (b) that Klauer et al.'s model describes the old data significantly better than does Dube et al.'s model and that it describes Dube et al.'s data somewhat better than does Dube et al.'s model; (c) that Dube et al.'s data are consistent with the account of belief bias by misinterpreted necessity, whereas Dube et al.'s signal detection model does not fit their data; and (d) that belief bias is more than a response bias effect.