The effects of goal types on psychological outcomes in active and insufficiently active adults in a walking task: Further evidence for open goals

ObjectivesThis study aimed to extend recent work on the effects of goal types in physical activity (PA; Swann, Hooper et al., 2020) by comparing the effects of SMART, open, and do-your-best (DYB) goals on performance and psychological responses in active and insufficiently active adults in a walking task.Design4 (goal condition) x 3 (attempt) x 2 (group) mixed design.MethodsActive (n = 18) and insufficiently active (n = 18) participants completed baseline and two experimental attempts of a 6-minute walking test in four conditions: SMART goal; open goal; DYB goal; and control. A range of measures were taken during and following each attempt, and after each session. A series of mixed ANOVA’s were conducted for all measures assessed between groups.ResultsInsufficiently active participants achieved greater distances in the open condition compared to the SMART condition (p < .001), whereas active participants achieved greater distances in the SMART condition compared to the open condition (p < .001). Additionally, exploratory analyses revealed that insufficiently active participants reported greater pleasure and enjoyment (p < .05) in the open condition compared to active participants, who conversely reported more pleasure and enjoyment (p < .05) in the SMART condition than insufficiently active participants.ConclusionsFindings provide initial evidence that PA and psychological responses differ between active and insufficiently active individuals depending on goal type. This work has potential implications for goal setting strategies in PA promotion and raises further questions about current practices of setting SMART goals for insufficiently active participants.     

Optimal psychological states in advanced climbers: Antecedents,characteristics, and consequences of flow and clutch states

ObjectivesOptimal psychological states (e.g., flow) are particularly valued by rock-climbers. The integrated model of flow and clutch states has shown promise for better understanding optimal states in sport psychology. The current study examined the antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of these states among rock-climbers in relation to the integrated model. A secondary objective was to compare optimal psychological states across outdoor and indoor rock-climbing contexts.DesignA sequential-explanatory (QUAN → qual) design was used.MethodNine male and four female advanced rock-climbers completed a flow questionnaire immediately after every climbing route during two separate climbing sessions (i.e., one outdoor, one indoor). Intensity sampling was used to identify participants for 13 semi-structured interviews, based on high- or low-score thresholds established by the research team. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and abductive reasoning.ResultsParticipants reported an optimal state during at least one of their climbs in 72% of their outdoor sessions and 40% of their indoor sessions. A focus on exploring routes was reported as preceding flow states, which were characterised by enjoyment of effortless movement for its own sake. In contrast, specific goals and additional risk-based pressure were reported as preceding clutch states, which were described as exerting maximal effort. After experiencing flow, participants reported additional vitality. Following clutch states, participants reported feeling accomplished, despite reporting exhaustion.ConclusionsThis study suggests potential antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of two distinct, yet overlapping, optimal states that appear to occur during both indoor and outdoor climbing. Findings extend understanding of the integrated flow and clutch state model beyond traditional sport and exercise contexts and demonstrates the utility of the model for adventure recreation. Recommendations for future research include testing, refining, and expanding the integrated model of flow and clutch.     

The effects of open vs. specific goals on flow and clutch states in a cognitive task

ObjectivesRecent qualitative evidence suggests that two optimal psychological states (flow and clutch) underlie excellent performance in sport. That research further suggests that the type of goal pursued influences which state is experienced. This study aimed to examine the effects of goal types (i.e., open, specific, and do-your-best goals) on flow and clutch states during performance in a cognitive task, which was developed and has been used in sport. Secondary aims were to investigate the effects of goal types on objective and subjective performance, confidence, and perceived challenge.DesignThis study employed a repeated measure design (mixed model).MethodParticipants (N = 95; M_age = 24.89, SD = 9.27) were randomised to one of three goal conditions and asked to perform a Letter and Number Identification Task, which was repeated for six attempts.ResultsParticipants prescribed open or do-your-best goals experienced significantly higher levels of flow than those prescribed specific goals, who conversely experienced significantly higher levels of clutch states. Participants assigned specific goals performed significantly better than those prescribed open or do-your-best goals. Those assigned open or do-your-best-goals reported greater perceived performance, higher confidence, and feeling more optimally challenged.ConclusionsThese findings provide experimental support for the role of goal types in determining flow and clutch states, and further understanding of the psychological effects of these goal types. Implications are discussed, and recommendations are made for future research into the role of goals in experiencing flow and clutch states in sport and exercise.     

Exploring the interactions underlying flow states: A connecting analysis of flow occurrence in European Tour golfers

ObjectivesResearch to date has identified a range of factors suggested to facilitate flow states in sport. However, less attention has focused on how exactly those facilitating factors influence the occurrence of flow. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the specific ways in which such facilitators influenced flow occurrence in European Tour golfers.DesignQualitative design.MethodTen full-time golfers from the European Tour (M age = 37; SD = 13.08) participated in semi-structured interviews investigating the occurrence of their flow states. Data were interpreted using an iterative process of thematic and connecting analyses.ResultsTen facilitators of flow were identified, of which commitment and the caddie have not been reported previously. Twenty four connecting links were identified in the data, through which the caddie, effective preparation, and high-quality performance appeared to be most influential for flow occurrence. Confidence and concentration also emerged as key constructs underlying the flow experience in this setting.ConclusionA central contribution of this study is the identification of ways in which facilitating factors could influence flow occurrence in elite golf. This process adds detail to understanding of flow occurrence, and moves beyond simply identifying factors which are associated with the experience. As such, connecting analysis is proposed as an additional strategy for qualitatively investigating flow occurrence in sport. Results are discussed in relation to previous literature, and recommendations are identified for researchers, athletes, coaches and practitioners.     

Peer support critical elements and experiences in supporting the homeless: A qualitative study

Peer supporters are individuals with lived experience and are an integral part of health care systems, providing support to those affected by various phenomena such as homelessness and addictions. However, little is known about the critical elements that underpin peer support interventions. This qualitative study sought to understand the critical elements of intentional peer support with a homeless population, voiced by those who provide and/or receive this support. Twenty‐nine participants from 4 different homeless charities in England were interviewed about their experiences of providing/receiving peer support and what they felt were critical factors to its success. Participants defined peer support as an experience‐based relationship, built upon mutual understanding, empathy, and support. Thematic analysis was utilised to in developing 6 themes. Results identified peers' persistence in developing unique experience‐based relationships, providing social support, role modelling recovery, and peers' motivations were perceived as important factors involved in peer support. It was also found that peers described benefitting from helping, such as, undergoing transformative identity developments that helped them to escape homelessness. Through the retelling of their stories, they create meaning and restructure their autobiography, attributing experiences of homelessness as a catalyst for positive changes in their lives. Limitations and future research are discussed.     

Motivation beliefs,emotions, leisure time physical activity,and sedentary behavior in university students: A full longitudinal model of mediation

Discrete emotions produce predictable response tendencies, yet there is limited understanding about their potential to mediate relations between motivation beliefs and leisure time physical activity (LTPA) and sedentary behavior. The current study investigates self-reported moderate LTPA, vigorous LTPA, and sedentary behavior as measured by the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire using control – value theory of achievement emotions (CVTAE) with a full longitudinal mediation design. A total of 586 young adults (Mage = 19.44, SD = 1.43) completed 1485 time-specific reports of LTPA, sedentary behavior, PA enjoyment, LTPA boredom, and control and value beliefs toward PA across three waves of data collection. Structural equation modeling was used to systematically disentangle direct and indirect relations over time. Neither enjoyment nor boredom mediated relations between participants’ control and value beliefs and moderate LTPA, vigorous LTPA, or sedentary behavior; however, boredom did negatively predict vigorous LTPA. There were reciprocal relations between control beliefs and moderate LTPA as well as value beliefs and PA enjoyment. The final model did not support relationships posited by CVTAE for LTPA or sedentary behavior. However, theoretically grounded CVTAE constructs explained substantive amounts of variance in moderate and vigorous LTPA but not sedentary behavior.     

Effects of a single bout of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on executive functions in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to systematically review the literature investigating the acute effects of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on executive functions (EFs) in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and perform a meta-analysis of the effects of MVPA on task components that require lower and higher EF demand in this population.MethodsThe systematic review and meta-analysis followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Six electronic databases, i.e., PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, SPORTDiscus, and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), were searched for eligible studies. Random-effects weights were used to pool the effect sizes. Publication bias was assessed by Egger’s regression test and Rosenthal’s fail-safe N. This study is registered on PROSPERO, number CRD42020184082.ResultsThe electronic database search yielded 12 studies, which met the inclusion criteria, comprising a total of 375 participants. Eleven studies with data from 275 participants were included in the meta-analysis to examine the acute effects of MVPA on tasks with lower and higher EF demand. A single bout of MVPA had a small positive effect on tasks with lower (n = 10, g = 0.32, 95% CI = 0.123–0.517) and higher (n = 10, g = 0.25, 95% CI = 0.13–0.371) EF demand. No publication bias was found.ConclusionsA single bout of MVPA may have a general facilitative effect on cognition, indicating that acute MVPA may be a transient nonpharmacological adjunctive treatment for childhood ADHD.     

Effects of acute endurance,strength, and coordination exercise interventions on attention in adolescents: A randomized controlled study

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to compare three different modes of an acute bout of exercise – endurance, strength, and coordination – in their effects on adolescents' attention.DesignThis was a preregistered, prospective, randomized intervention study with four groups and two distinct measurement occasions.MethodEighty adolescent students aged 15–18 years were randomized to one of three exercise intervention groups (endurance, strength, coordination) or to a non-exercise, control group. The exercise interventions lasted for 25 min. The random assignment to the study groups was stratified according to participants' age and gender. Before and after the exercise intervention, all participants completed the revised d2-test of attention. A 4 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA with contrast-coded test was used as the main analysis method.ResultsAttentional test performance increased from before to after the exercise intervention for all exercise groups, as compared with the control group. The three exercise groups improved equally and did not differ in their attentional scores after the intervention.ConclusionsAn acute bout of exercise was in general beneficial for adolescent students' attention, while the mode of the provided exercise training was not decisive. School directors and teachers are encouraged to incorporate exercise-related breaks into their school plan.     

Habit as mediator of the relationship between prior and later physical activity: A longitudinal study in older adults

ObjectivesHabit has been proposed as an explanation of why prior behavior is a good predictor of later behavior. This study examined whether habit mediates the relationship between prior and later physical activity (PA), within the framework of the attitude-social influences-efficacy (ASE) model and the theory of planned behavior (TPB).DesignA longitudinal design was used.MethodsA total of 1976 older adults completed questionnaires on ASE/TPB constructs and PA at baseline, intention at three months, habit at six months, and PA at twelve months.ResultsPath analyses showed that habit significantly mediates the relationship between prior and later PA, after ASE/TPB variables were taken into account.ConclusionsHabit is a partial solution to the question why prior PA is a good predictor of later PA. It is recommended to incorporate habit into the ASE/TPB model.     

Testing attitudes,social desirability and behavioral regulations as moderators of implicit-explicit exercise discrepancies: A replication study in Iranian students

IntroductionThere is mixed evidence regarding moderators of the relationship between implicitly and explicitly measured constructs. This study examined this issue with evaluations of exercise relative to health or appearance in a sample of Iranian adolescents. Investigaing automatic associations and reflective constructs might provide important implications for developing interventions targeting exercise behavior in a population with different cultural, social, and economic barriers to exercise than European or North American adolescents.MethodsParticipants were 471 students enrolled in grades 9 to 12, of whom 269 (54.9%) were female. Behavioral regulations, explicit attitudes, and social desirability were investigated as possible moderators. All students completed questionnaire measures of physical activity behavior, attitudes, social desieality and behavioral regulation. They also completed two Go/No Go Association tasks to measure automatic associations of exercise with health and apperarance.ResultsAttitude was a significant moderator of discrepancies between automatic associations of exercise with health and health motives. Interjected regulation moderated implicit-explicit appearance discrepancies. Participants with low social desirability and negative automatic appearance associations had the highest appearance motivation.ConclusionsParticipants focused on the potential of achieving positive health outcomes of exercise rather than physical appearance outcomes, which differs from research from other countries. It is possible that, health was strongly linked with exercise by the pervasive societal pressures in Iran to have a healthy body.