Youth sports and physical activity: The relationship between perceptions of childhood sport experience and adult exercise behavior

ObjectiveParticipation in organized youth sports has been shown to positively correlate with increased levels of exercise in adulthood. However, there is limited research to suggest why youth sports participation is related to increased physical activity as an adult. One possible explanation is that positive youth sport experiences lead youth to be more positively inclined to engage in physical activity as adults. Research into the positive youth development aspect of organized sports provides the framework for the current investigation.MethodsAdult participants (N = 234, M_age = 35.35) were asked to retrospectively assess their youth sports experiences using the “Four C's” (i.e., competence, confidence, connectedness, character) framework of positive youth development in sport. These assessments were then compared to current physical activity levels and related variables found in the Health Action Process Approach model (HAPA; Schwarzer, 2008).ResultsBivariate correlations revealed statistically significant and moderate correlations among competence, confidence, and connectedness and all of the HAPA variables including physical activity levels. Further, a MANCOVA analysis revealed that when participants were sub-divided into “non-intenders,” “intenders,” and “actors” using a validated staging algorithm, a general linear trend emerged for competence, confidence, and connectedness such that “non-intenders” rated these constructs the lowest and “actors” rated them the highest.ConclusionThese findings provide preliminary evidence that the relationship between participation in organized youth sports and adulthood levels of exercise could be contingent on how positively that experience is perceived.     

Applied sport psychology: A view from britain

Abstract

Based on the findings of a field study with youth sport coaches, contextual factors in youth sport arc considered. Youth sport is discussed as a “developmental intervention” (Birkel, Lerner, &; Smyer, 1989). Although past research has examined a variety of issues in youth sport (e.g., coaching behavior, participation motivation), the dynamics of the context have been largely ignored. It is argued that situational factors may have important implications for the quality of children's youth sport experiences. Data arc presented to show the significance of contextual factors in coaches' experiences. Examples of previous interventions aimed at manipulating contexts arc offered and suggestions for future interventions, based on the present study, arc discussed. The roles of parents. spectator location. rules, and time are discussed in detail.     

Youth sport participation and parental mental health

ObjectivesThe purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the relations of having a child involved in youth sport and primary (i.e., parent that knows the child best) and secondary parents' mental health.DesignParents from Wave 7 of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children reported their child's involvement in organised youth sport and self-reported measures of mental health. A total of 3192 primary (M = 43.04 years, SD = 8.75), and 2794 secondary (M = 46.13 years, SD = 6.16) parents of adolescent children were enrolled in the study. To investigate differences by type of sport participation, sport participation was grouped into one of four categories: non-participation; individual sport only; team sport only; both team and individual sport. Measures of days per week and hours per day of participation were also used to examine the relationship between sport participation and parental mental health.ResultsParents with adolescents involved in organised sport reported more life stress, more time pressure, and less psychological distress than parents of non-athletes. Stronger effects appeared in primary parents in comparison to secondary parents.ConclusionThe findings suggest an important relationship with respect to having a child involved in organised sport and parents' mental health. We encourage future scholars to explore potential protective mechanisms' (e.g., opportunities to socialise) of having a child in youth sport for the benefit of parents' mental health.     

Is Life Skill Development a By-Product of Sport Participation? Perceptions of Youth Sport Coaches

The purpose of this study was to understand youth sport coaches’ perceptions of life skill development. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 youth sport coaches across 5 organizations. Analyses revealed 4 themes based on coaches’ perceptions: (a) life skills are a by-product of sport participation, and transfer “just happens”; (b) if intentionally addressed, it's reactive; (c) coaches recognize the value of intentionally teaching life skills; and (d) coaches identify challenges associated with using an explicit approach to teaching life skills. Results provide evidence for the state of the current sport context and highlight areas for coach education related to life skills integration.     

Group dynamics in Canadian recreational team sports later in life

As interest and participation in physical activity later in life increases, evidence is needed to inform the promotion, design, and delivery of community-based sport for older people. One important consideration is the dynamics of the group, which may influence experiences of team sport among aging populations. A qualitative study was undertaken to explore group dynamics concepts and perceived outcomes experienced by older adults involved in Canadian community-based recreational teams. Seventeen mid-life and older adults (M_age = 64.06, SD = 6.40) who previously participated in youth team sport and were currently involved in adult recreational team sport participated in semi-structured phone interviews. Results were organized into categories outlined in the conceptual framework for the study of sport teams (Eys et al., 2020). Issues specific to team dynamics experienced in older adulthood are highlighted and relate to competitiveness, sport specific skills/knowledge, competitive level, motivational climate, interdependence, team stability, group norms, roles, cohesion, leadership, social support, conflict, enjoyment, personal development, and social connections. Findings underscore the relevance of team dynamics in older adulthood and importance of understanding individual and environmental attributes in relation to group processes, structures, emergent states, and outcomes specific to sport for older adults. Directions for future research and practical implications to encourage greater involvement and sustained participation in team sport throughout the lifespan are discussed.     

The importance of reflection and evaluation processes in daily training sessions for progression toward elite level swimming performance

Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves self-directed metacognitive subprocesses and motivational beliefs that facilitate more effective and efficient learning. We investigated whether youth swimmers who are on track to becoming elite swimmers apply SRL subprocesses more frequently in their daily training sessions compared with swimmers who are not on this track. Insights into swimmers’ use of training-centered SRL could advance understanding about underlying individual characteristics that contribute to optimal engagement in daily training and, consequently, progression toward elite level swimming performance. We collected data on training-centered SRL subprocesses (evaluation, planning, reflection, speaking up, effort and self-efficacy) and performance data for 157 youth swimmers aged 12–21 years (73 males and 84 females). The results of a multivariate analysis of covariance revealed significantly higher scores for reflection processes during training for high-performing swimmers but lower scores for effort compared with lower-performing swimmers (p < 0.05). A closer examination of the high-performing group showed that those demonstrating greater improvement during a season scored significantly higher for evaluation processes after training compared with those evidencing less improvement during a season (p < 0.05). Significant between-group differences in SRL subprocesses remained after adjusting for differences in weekly training hours. Youth swimmers on track to becoming elite swimmers are characterized by more frequent use of reflection processes during training and evaluation processes after training, which suggests that these swimmers’ learning and training processes are more effective and efficient. Ultimately, this could contribute to a higher quality of daily training, which may result in greater improvements during a season, higher performance levels, and a greater chance of reaching the level of elite swimming performance.     

The association of families’ socioeconomic and demographic characteristics with parents’ perceived barriers to returning to youth sport following the COVID-19 pandemic

Developmentally appropriate sport contexts have the potential to positively influence young people’s physiological, psychological, and social outcomes. However, little is known about how families returned to sport in the wake of COVID-19-related restrictions or how socioeconomic and demographic factors influenced parents’ perceptions of barriers to returning. A nationally representative sample (N = 6183) of American youth sport parents completed a questionnaire in which they provided demographic information and answered questions related to the barriers they perceived in returning to sport, such as the risk of their child getting sick. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships among a range of socioeconomic and demographic factors and these barriers to returning. Results suggest that parents from racially minoritized and urban neighborhoods held higher levels of concern over health-related and practical barriers to returning to sport. Findings highlight the importance of designing available, equitable, and appropriate youth sport contexts.     

Prevalence,correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in young adult cancer survivors

Young adult cancer survivors (YACS) face unique challenges from their disease and treatments that may influence their sport participation choices as well as their psychosocial response.ObjectivesTo examine the prevalence, correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in YACS.DesignA provincial, population-based mailed survey of 588 YACS in Alberta, Canada, was completed in May 2008 and included measures of sport participation, psychosocial health (depression, self-esteem, and stress), quality of life (QoL), and medical and demographic variables.ResultsOne third (32.5%) of YACS reported participating in a sport in the past month with the most common being golf (40.8%) and ice hockey (8.3%). YACS participating in sport reported an average frequency of 1.7 (SD = 1.0) days/week and an average duration of 119 min/session (SD = 68) for a total of 189 (SD = 164) min/week. Independent t-tests showed that YACS who participated in sport reported better psychosocial health and QoL including physical QoL (p < 0.001), mental QoL (p < 0.001), self-esteem (p < 0.001), depression (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001). In multivariate regression analysis, 8.5% (p < 0.001) of the variance in sport participation was explained by being male (β = 0.17, p < 0.001), Caucasian (β = 0.15, p = 0.001), in better general health (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), and having a normal body mass index (β = ?0.10, p = 0.024).Discussion/conclusionsSport participation is associated with better psychosocial health and QoL in YACS but only a third participated in the past month. Randomized controlled trials examining sport as an intervention strategy to increase physical activity and improve health outcomes in YACS are warranted.     

Understanding “Zoom fatigue”: A mixed-method approach

Video conference meetings, which became frequent during the COVID-19 pandemic, might result in exhaustion (so-called “Zoom fatigue”). However, only little is known about “Zoom fatigue,” the objective characteristics shaping it, and the subjective experiences eliciting this phenomenon. Gaining this knowledge is critical for understanding work life during the pandemic. Study 1, a within-person quantitative investigation, tested whether video conferences are exhausting and if objective characteristics (i.e. meeting size, meeting duration, and the presence of the supervisor) moderate “Zoom fatigue”. Employees from Germany and Israel (N = 81) participated in a 2-week study, with meetings nested within persons (n = 988). Results showed that video conferences are exhausting—more than meetings held through other media. However, objective characteristics did not moderate this relationship. In Study 2, qualitative data from Germany and Israel (N = 53) revealed employees' subjective experiences in video conferences that may lead to “Zoom fatigue”. These include, for example, experiences of loss and comparison with the “good old times” before the pandemic. Employees suggested ways to mitigate “Zoom fatigue,” particularly, better management of meetings by leaders. Our results provide empirical support for “Zoom fatigue” and suggest which subjective experiences elicit this phenomenon, opening directions for research and practice.     

Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age.DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed.MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport.ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents.ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.     

Coaches' expectations and beliefs regarding benefits of youth sport participation

Although many have investigated why children participate in sport, little is known about what adults expect children to gain from participation. The present purpose was to examine coaches' expectations of what children should gain from participation in sport and the extent to which coaches believe that these expectations are actually fulfilled. Participants included 109 youth sport coaches who completed a survey packet consisting of a demographic information questionnaire and the Ohio Sport Satisfaction Index. Analysis indicated coaches ranked the variables of having fun, learning life skills, being part of a team, developing confidence, and the excitement of competition as the most important outcomes for the youth they coach. Generally, coaches believe that their expectations are being fulfilled. Coaches' sex and years of coaching were not significantly related to any of the criterion variables in the present study.     

Sink or swim: Adversity- and growth-related experiences in Olympic swimming champions

ObjectiveTo explore the adversity- and growth-related experiences of swimmers at the highest competitive level. Of particular interest was the transitional process that the swimmers progress through to positively transform their experiences.DesignEight autobiographies of Olympic swimming champions were sampled and analyzed.MethodThe books were written by four male and three female swimmers whose ages at the time of their Olympic swims ranged from 14 to 41 years (M = 23.39, SD = 6.04). Informed by a narrative tradition, the autobiographies were subjected to a holistic analysis which involved scrutinizing the form of the structure and style of the narrative, and the content relating to the events and meanings described by the authors.ResultsThe swimmers perceived their adversity-related experiences to be traumatic and initially attempted to negotiate them by maintaining a state of normality through the development of an emotional and embodied relationship with water. This relationship involved the non-disclosure of traumatic adversities and the development of multiple identities. As these strategies eventually proved to be maladaptive and exposed the swimmers to further adversity, the dialog of the autobiographies typically shifted to a more quest-focused narrative with the swimmers seeking meaning in their experiences and looking to others for support. Adoption of these strategies was necessary for the swimmers to experience growth, which was identifiable through superior performance, enhanced relationships, spiritual awareness, and prosocial behavior.ConclusionThe findings provide broad support for theories of posttraumatic growth and suggest that assimilation processes may comprise initial phases of the transition between adversity and growth. We discuss a number of practical implications for psychologists and significant others involved with elite swimmers.     

Parents’ experiences of family food routines in adolescent elite-level swimming

ObjectiveParents have an important role in their child’s food routines and eating behaviour and face additional demands when that child is an athlete. Yet little is known about how parents manage providing food for their athletic child, in addition to the wider family, within the context of elite-level youth sport.MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with sixteen parents (mothers = 11; fathers = 5) of elite level adolescent swimmers (i.e., competing at UK national level or above; child mean age = 15.4 years) to explore their experiences of family food routines and eating behaviour. Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to analyse the data.ResultsParents outlined the importance of ‘optimal’ fuelling for their athletic child. Parents had an active role in their child’s eating behaviour and shaping their food choices but expressed uncertainty regarding the volume of food their child should consume and concerns regarding their child’s future relationship with food. Meticulous organisational and logistical strategies were employed to meet the extensive food requirements of their adolescent elite swimmer in the face of intensive training schedules. Such schedules also impacted food routines for the wider family (i.e., fewer family mealtimes), and on the quality of parents’ own diets.ConclusionThe findings highlight that clearer guidance is needed for parents of elite adolescent swimmers in relation to quantities of food intake and how to support a positive future relationship with food (specifically during any periods of transition in their training or out of the sport). The findings also identify a novel organisational stressor for parents in elite youth sport, in managing and prioritising their own diet. Further research is needed to explore the extent to which parental diet may be impacted by supporting an adolescent athlete.     

Understanding dropout and prolonged engagement in adolescent competitive sport

Objectives: The purpose of this study is to gain understanding of training patterns and roles of significant others (i.e. coaches, parents, peers, and siblings) in adolescent swimmers’ sport participation patterns. Design: The developmental model of sport participation [Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework for the acquisition of expertise in team sport. In J. Starkes, & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 89–114). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; Côté, J., & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2007). Youth involvement in sport. In P. R. E. Crocker (Ed.), Introduction to sport psychology: A Canadian perspective (pp. 266–294). Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall] was used as a framework.Method: Ten dropout and 10 engaged swimmers, matched on key demographic variables participated in a semi-structured qualitative interview.Results: Groups had many similar experiences (e.g. early training, supportive and unsupportive coaches, involved parents). However, only dropouts spoke of early peak performances, limited one-on-one coaching, pressuring parents during adolescence, lack of swimming peers during adolescence, and sibling rivalries. In contrast, only engaged athletes spoke of clubs’ developmental philosophies, coaches’ and parents’ open communication, school friends’ support, and siblings’ general positive influences.Conclusions: Findings highlight the importance of appropriately structured programs and the fragility of athletes’ relationships with significant others during the adolescent years. Implications for sport programmers, coaches, and parents are discussed.     

Parent-child relations and orientations toward sport

Same-sex (mother-daughter, father-son) and cross-sex (mother-son, father-daughter) parent-child relationships were examined with regard to whether these social interactions were differentially related to children's orientations toward sport. “Winning” and “achievement” were defined as traditional male sport orientations while “fair play” and “everyone participates” were viewed as traditional female sport orientations. The theory of parent-child interaction developed suggested that parents as a result of their own sex-role socialization transmit their own sex-value orientations to their same-sex children, but nonsex-linked sport orientations to their cross-sex children. Comparisons were made among 898 male and 800 female adolescents who participated in a nationally sponsored youth sports program. The analysis revealed that mother-son relationships were associated with more traditional female sport orientations in boys; contrary to expectation, father-daughter relationships were also related to stronger female sport orientations in girls. Explanations for why both parents may reinforce traditional sex-linked orientations in their daughters, but not their sons, are discussed.     

Barriers and facilitators affecting the sustainability of dialectical behaviour therapy programmes: A qualitative study of clinician perspectives

Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a psychological treatment developed for individuals experiencing chronic suicidality and high‐risk behaviours. Despite the substantial evidence supporting the effectiveness of DBT, many programmes have problems with its sustainability. The goals of the current qualitative study were to identify factors that impact the sustainability of DBT programmes within a publicly funded mental health system and identify factors that are particularly relevant for youth DBT programmes. Interviews with trained adult and youth DBT clinicians (N = 31) were conducted to explore their experiences providing DBT. Three major themes that emerged as barriers to the sustainability of DBT programmes included the following: systemic challenges, conflicts within the consultation teams and clinician burnout. Factors influencing the success of DBT programmes included the following: systemic support, clinician commitment and “buy in”, and team cohesion. Factors specific to providing DBT with youth (i.e. level of commitment, simplifying the language, and parental investment) and recommendations for sustainability for adults and youth programmes were also identified. Findings of this study provide valuable information on factors impacting DBT programmes within the unique context of a Canadian mental health service system, where community‐based services are publicly funded. These findings have clear clinical utility and can be used to generate solutions to clinicians' perceived barriers and to foster perceived facilitators within similar contexts.     

The effect of different kick start positions on OMEGA OSB11 blocks on free swimming time to 15 m in developmental level swimmers

The introduction of the OMEGA OSB11 starting blocks (Swiss Timing, Corgémont, Switzerland) which feature an adjustable inclined plate built into the rear of the platform, have led to the evolution of the “kick start” style of swimming start. Previous studies examining the effect of different starting positions using the OSB11 starting blocks have not examined swimming performance over distances beyond 7.5 m. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to compare three starting positions (front, neutral and rear-weighted) using the kick start to determine whether a given position can improve swimming performance over a 15 m distance. After undergoing four weeks of dive training using each of the three positions, ten developmental level swimmers completed three 20 m sprint trials in each position. Results indicated that the neutral and rear-weighted positions produced faster times to 15 m (p < .01) when compared to the front-weighted position. Starting position did not affect the swimmer’s velocity between 4.5 and 5.5 m or between 14.5 and 15.5 m (p = .50). Developmental level swimmers should choose between a neutral-weighted or rear-weighted position on the new OSB11 starting blocks.