Coach identity leadership behaviours are positively associated with athlete resource appraisals: The mediating roles of relational and group identification

BackgroundThere is growing evidence identifying the positive effects of sport and exercise leaders engaging in identity leadership. Yet we have limited knowledge of how identity leadership is associated with athletes’ resource appraisals (e.g., self-efficacy) and performance, the underpinning mechanisms that explain such relationships, and changes in relationships across a sporting season.MethodsIn Study 1, 412 amateur and professional athletes completed seven questionnaires directly prior to athletic competition in a cross-sectional design. In Study 2, 136 athletes completed seven questionnaires directly before competition, and one questionnaire directly after competition both at the start and the end of the athletic season.ResultsIn Study 1, relational identification and group identification mediated the positive relationship between identity leadership and self-efficacy, control, approach goals and social support. In Study 2, identity leadership at the start of the season predicted self-efficacy at the end of the season through relational identification. Group identification did not significantly mediate the identity leadership-resource appraisal relationship. Perceived social support at the start of the season predicted greater performance satisfaction at the end of the competitive season.ConclusionsFindings provide evidence that sport coaches’ engagement in identity leadership is key to forming a shared social identity, which in turn, is broadly adaptive for stress appraisals and performance satisfaction both cross sectionally and longitudinally.     

Examining the Importance of Intentionally Structuring the Youth Sport Context to Facilitate Positive Youth Development

Researchers argue that sport must be deliberately structured to teach life skills. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in program quality and positive developmental outcomes across 3 youth programming contexts (intentional sport, nonintentional sport, intentional leadership) pertaining to the importance of intentionally teaching life skills. Researchers conducted 184 observations, and 377 youth completed 2 questionnaires. Results indicated intentionally structured programs scored higher on program quality and positive youth development outcomes than nonintentionally structured programs, with intentional sport scoring significantly higher on some measures of program quality and positive youth development than leadership programs. Practical implications and future research areas are discussed.     

Ethnic diversity and cohesion in interdependent youth sport contexts

Team sports are a group environment in which individuals from various backgrounds often come together in pursuit of a common goal. Building on the findings of recent research that examined the effects of ethnic diversity in professional and intercollegiate sport contexts, we examined the association between ethnic diversity and youth athletes' perceptions of cohesion in interdependent sport teams (e.g., soccer), and tested ethnic identity as a moderator of this relationship. Multilevel analysis of data from 272 youth athletes nested within 24 teams revealed that ethnic diversity negatively predicted both task and social dimensions of cohesion, but ethnic identity did not emerge as a moderating variable. These findings are divergent from recent work that examined similar relationships in intercollegiate contexts. This highlights the complexity, and the importance, of examining the effects of ethnic diversity on team functioning-oriented variables at different levels of sport competition. Although replication studies are necessary to understand the reliability of the current findings, our study provides insight into the effects of ethnic diversity in youth sport and emphasizes pertinent developmental processes (e.g., identity formation) that scholars should take into consideration in future research.     

The relationship between peer servant leadership,social identity,and team cohesion in intercollegiate athletics

Servant leadership is characterized by a leader’s emphasis on serving their followers first. Within the sport context, servant leadership has been studied primarily in coaches and has been associated with positive athlete outcomes, such as increased athlete satisfaction, motivation, and performance. However, the impact of servant leadership from an athlete perspective (e.g., formal team captains) has been underexplored. As such, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships between peer servant leadership, cohesion, and social identity within intercollegiate athletes. Two hundred and eighty-eight Division I and Division III NCAA intercollegiate athletes participated in the present study (female n = 165; male n = 123; M_age = 19.41, SD_age = 1.09) and completed the Revised Servant Leadership Profile for Sport (RSLP-S; Hammermeister et al., 2008), Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ; Carron et al., 1985; Eys et al., 2007), and Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (SIQS; Bruner & Benson, 2018). Structural equation modeling was used to assess the relationships between peer servant leadership, cohesion, and social identity. Results revealed that peer servant leadership positively predicted cohesion, and this relationship was fully mediated by social identity. The current study supports the effectiveness of peer servant leadership in sport contexts and provides theoretical support for the social identity approach to leadership.     

Reflections on cohesion research with sport and exercise groups

The purpose of this article is to highlight cohesion research emanating from sport and exercise investigations. Across 3 sections, we detail how physical activity cohesion research converges with, and diverges from, mainstream literature in other areas (e.g., organizational psychology). In the first section, information pertaining to the definition, conceptualization, and measurement of cohesion in sport and exercise is provided and contrasted with recent reviews on these topics from organizational psychology. The second section provides an overview of recent studies conducted within the physical activity context to illustrate the diverse nature of cohesion research in this area. Specifically, the summary of sport literature highlights the associations of personal, social, and team factors to cohesion, in addition to drawing attention to its potential maladaptive effects. Exercise research is summarized via associations with personal, leadership, environmental, and group factors. Finally, in the third section, future suggestions are provided encouraging researchers to explore (a) the temporal dynamics of cohesion, (b) greater theoretical integration, (c) measurement issues, and (d) diverse populations of physical activity participants.     

The effects of leadership style and exercise program choreography on enjoyment and intentions to exercise

ObjectiveThe purpose of the study was to examine the independent (main) and interactive effects of leadership style and exercise program choreography on the enjoyment and future exercise intentions of novice female exercisers.DesignA randomized 2 (leadership style)×2 (exercise choreography) factorial in which a manipulation of leadership style (instructionally and motivationally enriched vs. bland) was crossed with a manipulation of exercise choreography style consisting of either a restricted or a varied set of exercises.MethodsNovice female exercisers (N=75) completed measures of exercise enjoyment and intentions to engage in future step aerobics classes following a 40-minute introductory session of step aerobics.ResultsSignificant (p<0.05) main effects were detected for leadership style and exercise choreography on enjoyment. Socially enriched leadership and varied choreography were associated with greater enjoyment. There were no main or interaction effects for exercise intention.ConclusionsResults show that social and structural factors impact on positive psychological outcomes in a structured exercise setting. Practitioners are encouraged to use these and previous findings to plan introductory exercise sessions. Future research should look at the impact of leadership style, choreography, and class group dynamics on behavioral manifestations such as adherence.     

The Contributions of Personality to Organizational Behavior and Psychology: Findings,Criticisms, and Future Research Directions

Skepticism regarding the importance of personality traits as predictors of organizational behavior criteria has given way to an appreciation of the broad array of work outcomes predicted by personality. This article considers the effects of the five‐factor model (‘Big Five’) personality traits on the following work outcomes: (1) job performance; (2) work motivation; (3) job attitudes; (4) leadership; (5) power, politics, and influence; (6) stress, adaptability, and coping; (7) team effectiveness; (8) counterproductive/deviant workplace behaviors; (9) workplace accidents; and (10) conflict and negotiation. Two contemporary criticisms of personality research in organizational behavior – that the validities are small and that faking undermines the usefulness of personality inventories in employment contexts – are then evaluated. Finally, a brief agenda for future research is provided which highlights needed areas of advancement.     

Doing it for the team: Soccer coaches' identity leadership predicts players' effort,turnover intentions,and performance

ObjectivesThe present research investigates how coaches' identity leadership predicts individual and team outcomes in soccer. Specifically, we tested hypotheses that coaches' identity leadership would be associated with players' perceptions of (a) higher team effort, (b) lower turnover intentions, (c) better individual performance, and (d) better team performance. In addition, we aimed to examine the relationship between coaches' identity leadership and increased team identification of players and the degree to which the associations of identity leadership with these various outcomes were mediated by players' strength of team identification.DesignWe conducted a cross-sectional study of male soccer players in Germany.MethodThe final sample consisted of 247 male soccer players nested in 24 teams that completed measures of their coaches' identity leadership, team identification, team effort, turnover intentions, and individual/team performance.ResultsAnalysis revealed a positive relationship between coaches' identity leadership and team effort, as well as individual and team performance. Moreover, coaches' identity leadership was associated with lower turnover intentions. There was also evidence that the relationships between identity leadership and the investigated outcomes were mediated by team identification.ConclusionsThese findings support claims that coaches' identity leadership is associated with better individual and team outcomes because it helps to build a sense of ‘we’ and ‘us’ in the team they lead.     

Shared identity content between leader and follower influences intentional mobilization and challenge and threat states

ObjectivesResearchers have examined how leaders' representation of shared identity content allows them to mobilize group members towards success in competitive tasks. However, research is yet to determine the psychological and physiological implications of shared identity content with a leader when approaching competitive tasks. The present research addresses this gap within a two-phase experimental study, examining the effect of shared identity content on follower intentional mobilization, self-efficacy, perceived control, approach and avoidance goals, cardiovascular challenge and threat and motor performance within a competitive task.DesignA 2 × 2 between-participants two-phase experimental design, with two shared and two non-shared conditions.MethodWithin phase one, 220 sport and exercise undergraduate students imagined themselves in one of four scenarios and responded to measures of mobilization (e.g., willingness to invest time on a task). Then, a pre-screening questionnaire was used to evidence the students' authentic identity content when competing in sport, which informed condition within phase two. Of those who consented to phase two, a laboratory experiment with 120 undergraduate sport and exercise students was used. Within this experiment, the sharedness of identity content between leader and follower was manipulated through the students' authentic pre-screening questionnaire responses. Within phase two, competition related self-efficacy, perceived control, approach and avoidance goals, cardiovascular challenge and threat and motor performance was assessed.ResultsPhase one results indicated that when identity content is shared (vs. non-shared) between leader and follower, group members' willingness to invest time on a task is increased within a hypothetical scenario. In phase two, it was evidenced that when identity content is shared (vs. non-shared) between leader and follower, followers reported greater intentional mobilization, self-efficacy and perceived control when approaching a competitive task. Shared identity content with a leader did not predict cardiovascular challenge states nor greater motor performance (relative to non-shared identity content).ConclusionThe present research provides evidence that a leaders' capacity to mobilize effort of group members and enhance psychological appraisal of competitive events is dependent on their ability to build shared identity content.     

Relationships among Coach Leadership,Peer Leadership,and Adolescent Athletes’ Psychosocial and Team Outcomes: A Test of Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational leadership theory provided a framework to examine the relationships of coach and peer leadership with individual and team outcomes among team sport athletes. Adolescent female soccer players (N = 412) completed measures assessing coach and teammate transformational leadership behaviors, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, team cohesion, and collective efficacy. Structural equation modeling revealed that coach leadership was more influential than peer leadership for predicting individual outcomes and collective efficacy, peer leadership was more strongly related to social cohesion than coach leadership, and both peer and coach leadership were equally important for task cohesion. Results are discussed relative to the viability of using transformational leadership theory to understand coach and athlete leadership in the sport domain.     

Doing Social Identity Leadership: Exploring the Efficacy of an Identity Leadership Intervention on Perceived Leadership and Mobilization in Elite Disability Soccer

Based on social identity principles we explore the efficacy of a leadership intervention in elite disability sport. A 2-year longitudinal design involved an elite male disability soccer team that prepared for a World Championship in Year 1 and then reformed for Paralympic competition in Year 2. Athlete data indicated marginal to significant increases from baseline to intervention phases in social identification, identity leadership displayed by staff, and hours practice completed away from training camps, but no significant change in mobilization of effort (in Year 1 and 2). We discuss the applied implications, study limitations, and opportunities for future researchers.     

Les effets de la motivation sur la performance sportive au regard de la théorie de l’autodétermination : vers une approche intra-individuelle

The main purpose of the present article is to review studies in the self-determination framework (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2008) examining the effects of athletes’ motivation on sport performance. This work consists of three different sections. First, we detail the main postulates of self-determination theory. Second, we present results of recent studies examining the influence of motivation on performance by shedding light on research with a person-centered approach at different levels of generality (Vallerand, 1997). Finally, future research directions and practical implications are proposed to enhance athletes’ sport performance. We suggest that athletes’ autonomous motivation should be increased to attain success in sport.     

When the final whistle blows: Social identity pathways support mental health and life satisfaction after retirement from competitive sport

For many athletes, retirement from higher levels of competitive sport poses significant challenges. Research has shown that athletic identity is a key predictor of adjustment trajectories, but the mechanisms through which this affects outcomes are less clear. Added to this, there has been limited research on the role that wider social identities, and the resources they enable, play in adjustment. Addressing both these issues, we examined theoretically derived social identity pathways to retirement adjustment in athletes who had played sport at higher competitive levels and two potential mechanisms, or psychological resources, through which adjustment might be enabled. This was examined in two samples: retired athletes from countries in Western (n = 215) and Eastern (n = 183) regions. Loss of athletic identity, social group memberships (multiple, maintained and new), psychological resources (perceived meaning in life and control), and adjustment (life satisfaction, depression, and perceived physical health) were assessed. In both samples, the loss of athletic identity undermined adjustment by reducing meaning in life and perceived control. Path analysis showed that both maintained and gained social group memberships counteracted the negative effects of athletic identity loss on adjustment. Evidence that these pathways enabled access to psychological resources was found primarily in Chinese athletes, with maintained groups influencing personal control and new groups influencing meaning in life. These findings highlight the importance of social identity processes to retirement from higher levels of competitive sport and the mechanisms through which they can either support or undermine adjustment.     

All for us and us for all: Introducing the 5R Shared Leadership Program

While most leadership programs seek to develop the leadership qualities of the formal team leader, programs that aim to develop the leadership qualities of team members are rare. This article draws on insights from organisational and sport psychology to develop and introduce a new leadership development program — the 5R Shared Leadership Program (5R^S) — that (1) implements a structure of shared leadership (through Shared Leadership Mapping) and (2) further develops participants’ leadership potential (through the 5R’s of Readying, Reflecting, Representing, Realising, and Reporting). More specifically, being a close intertwinement of shared leadership theorising and the social identity approach to leadership, 5R^S helps leaders in the team to create, embody, advance, and embed a collective sense of ‘us’ in their teams. In this article, we aim to shed light on the underpinning theoretical foundation of 5R^S, while also sharing insights about how 5R^S can be delivered in practice. Furthermore, to provide initial insight into the applicability of 5R^S in both organisational and sport contexts, we conducted a longitudinal qualitative comparison study. This involved collecting qualitative data from two initial implementations: with an organisational team (N = 16) and a sport team (N = 16). A critical reflection on these initial implementations of 5R^S leads to recommendations for future efforts to develop shared leadership in organisational and sporting teams. In particular, we highlight the importance of explaining the nature of shared leadership at the start of the program and of having multiple follow-up sessions for participants. In conclusion, by helping leaders in the team to develop and mobilise a sense of ‘us-ness’, 5R^S gives leaders and their teams the tools to create the best possible version of ‘us’.     

授权型领导的负面效应：理论机制与边界条件

已有研究主要关注授权型领导的正面影响, 然而, 新近的研究表明授权型领导可能也会引发潜在的负面效应。针对此问题, 首先界定了授权型领导的概念及其核心特征。其次, 基于双重任务加工效应、角色理论和内隐领导理论, 阐释了授权型领导负面效应的理论机制, 并进一步分析和总结了授权型领导的有效性在何种条件下能够实现。最后, 提出了授权型领导负面效应未来研究方向的建议。     

The psychosocial aspects of a return to sport following serious injury: A review of the literature from a self-determination perspective

ObjectivesThe objective of this paper is to review the literature relevant to the psychosocial aspects of a return to sport following injury using a self-determination theoretical (SDT) framework.MethodsThe literature was reviewed qualitatively. SDT was used to interpret and bring coherence to the diverse array of findings.ResultsThe review is divided into four main sections. In section one, two conceptual models—the biopsychosocial model and the stages of return to sport model—that have been used to describe the return to sport following injury are examined and critiqued. In light of the limitations of these two models, SDT is presented as a potentially useful framework for synthesising the extant literature and making suggestions for future research on return to sport after injury phenomena (Section 2). Analysis of the psychosocial sport injury literature within a self-determination framework (Section 3) reveals the ways in which issues of competence, autonomy and relatedness may be salient during the return transition. In the fourth and final section, the implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided in line with self-determination theoretical contentions.ConclusionsSDT has potential for understanding findings in this area and for guiding future research. From an applied perspective, ensuring athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness are met, may yield beneficial return-to-sport outcomes.     

A comparison of authentic and transformational leadership in sport

Transformational and authentic leadership are two models of leadership, which have some similarities and are relevant to sport. However, these leadership models are also distinct and consequently may predict athlete outcomes differently. Authentic leadership has received little attention in sport and so research is needed to examine how it is unique in terms of what it adds to dominant sport leadership models. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether authentic leadership (a) is empirically distinct from transformational leadership and (b) adds to transformational leadership by explaining unique variance in commitment and enjoyment. A total of 421 (227 female, M_age = 20.32) team sport athletes took part in the study by completing a questionnaire. Authentic leadership was correlated to transformational leadership, suggesting transformational and authentic leadership show some convergent validity. However, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that authentic leadership also shows discriminant validity to transformational leadership and has incremental predictive power above that of transformational leadership, in terms of predicting athletes’ enjoyment and commitment. Our findings enhance our understanding of authentic leadership in sport and clearly show that it is distinct from transformational leadership. They also highlight the importance of authentic leadership and how it adds to transformational leadership in terms of predicting athletes’ commitment and enjoyment.     

Evolutionary sport and exercise psychology: Integrating proximate and ultimate explanations

ObjectivesThis review aims to demonstrate the utility of integrating the insights of evolutionary psychology with sport and exercise psychology. Specifically, we offer a primer on evolutionary psychology that we then discuss in the context of several research avenues in sport and exercise. Next, we discuss how evolutionary psychology can inform our understanding of sporting culture.DesignReview paper.MethodsTheory and research are selectively reviewed in efforts to demonstrate the utility and limits of evolutionary psychology as an approach to sport and exercise psychology.Results and conclusionsEvolutionary psychology offers researchers in sport and exercise psychology an improved capacity to produce proximate explanations (i.e., how psychological mechanisms interact with the environment to produce behavior) by generating productive and novel hypotheses from ultimate explanations (i.e., why a psychological mechanism evolved a particular design; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992, 2005). The worth of integrating proximate and ultimate explanations is demonstrated by the ensuing novel insights of popular avenues of sport and exercise psychology including (a) the interrelation between motivation and reasoning and their relative influence on exercise behavior, (b) sex differences in sport participation, (c) performance in sport, and (d) group dynamics in sport. Unlike specific fields of psychology, evolutionary psychology is a metatheoretical approach that can foster mutually productive linkages between currently disparate areas within sport and exercise psychology, and with neighboring disciplines.     

When Power Changes Hands: The Political Psychology of Leadership Succession in Democracies

Leadership succession in democratic governments and political parties is an ubiquitous but relatively understudied phenomen, where the political becomes intensely personal and vice versa. This article outlines the puzzles that leadership succession poses to political analysts, reviews the literature, and offers a conceptual framework deconstructing the process in terms of a flow from succession contexts and triggers via the role choices of key participants (incumbents and aspiring successors) through to the eventual succession outcomes. It concludes by presenting a series of testable hypotheses to describe and explain leadership successions.