Support for a Modified Tripartite Dual Pathway Model of Body Image Concerns and Risky Body Change Behaviors in French Young Men

The aim of the present study was to extend the extant literature by testing a modified Tripartite Dual Pathway Model of the development of male body image and eating concerns among French young men. A sample of 147 French male college students (M _age = 22.09 years-old, range = 18–30) completed a questionnaire assessing sociocultural influences, internalization of the lean/low body fat ideal and the muscular/athletic ideal, appearance comparison, body fat and muscularity dissatisfaction, muscularity enhancement behaviors, drive for thinness, and bulimic symptoms. The revised and final model was an adequate fit to the data, and included separate pathways for muscularity- and leanness-related concerns. This model shows that sociocultural pressures perceived from the media, family members, and peers were associated, through appearance comparison and internalization of the lean and muscular ideal, with body image concerns, disordered eating, and muscularity enhancement behaviors. Results reveal a strong and direct relationship between the internalization of the muscular/athletic ideal and muscularity enhancement behaviors. These findings contribute to the refinement of sociocultural models of the development of body image concerns and unhealthy body change behaviors including disordered eating among men, provide additional support for the usefulness of these models, and extend them to non-English speaking Western contexts.     

Drive for muscularity and disordered eating among French adolescent boys: a sociocultural model

The pursuit of muscularity is an important body image concern among boys which has been described within sociocultural models of risk for eating disorders. This study explored a sociocultural model of disordered eating in which drive for thinness and pursuit of muscularity were both pathways to disordered eating among French adolescent boys. A sample of 146 adolescents completed a questionnaire assessing drive for thinness, drive for muscularity, media-ideal internalization, appearance comparison, and sociocultural pressure. The model was a good fit to the data and both drive for thinness and the pursuit of muscularity were related to disordered eating. Furthermore, internalization and appearance comparison mediated the relationships between pressure to increase muscle and both drive for muscularity and drive for thinness. Longitudinal research could help clarify the role of the pursuit of muscularity in the development of disordered eating and extreme body shape changing behaviors.     

Team weigh-ins and self-weighing: Relations to body-related perceptions and disordered eating in collegiate male athletes

ObjectivesIn this study we examined the relation of team weigh-ins and self-weighing frequency on collegiate male athletes' internalization of body ideals, social pressures about weight/body, body satisfaction, dietary intent, negative affect, drive for muscularity, and bulimic symptomatology.Design and methodsWe used a cross-sectional survey design, and collected data electronically from 738 male intercollegiate athletes in the U.S.ResultsAthletes who self-weighed 7 + times per week reported the most pressure to lose weight and be lean and muscular, engaged in muscle-building behaviors most frequently, dieted most often, and had the highest level of bulimic symptomatology. Further, athletes on teams that conducted mandatory weigh-ins (vs. not) engaged in more muscularity behaviors and dietary restriction.ConclusionWeighing, but in particularly that conducted voluntarily, may contribute to an overconcern with appearance, body size/shape, and weight, which in turn can lead to a variety of behaviors related to eating and body change.     

Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating in female figure skaters

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to (a) examine the prevalence of disordered eating among female figure skaters, (b) compare levels of disordered eating between skaters and their same-age peers, (c) compare levels of disordered eating between elite skaters and their sub-elite counterparts, and (d) examine general and sport-related correlates of disordered eating (i.e., four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity).DesignThis study employed a cross-sectional design.MethodsParticipants completed paper–pencil surveys, including measures for disordered eating, four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity. Participants included 272 female figure skaters ages 12–25 (M = 15.63) across five US states.ResultsThirteen percent of participants scored within range of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors but were no more symptomatic than their same-age peers when compared to existing normative data. Levels of disordered eating did not significantly differ between those competing at the elite and sub-elite level. After controlling for body mass index and age, disordered eating was significantly predicted by self-consciousness of weight and appearance, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, and positive perfectionism.ConclusionsDisordered eating occurs in female figure skaters across competitive levels. Concern over weight and appearance, dissatisfaction with one's body in general and in sport, and positive perfectionism may serve as important tools in the prevention and detection of disordered eating in female figure skaters.     

Examination of a sociocultural model of excessive exercise among male and female adolescents

There is substantial evidence that sociocultural pressures and body image disturbances can lead to disordered eating, yet few studies have examined their impact on excessive exercise. The study adapted a sociocultural model for disordered eating to predict excessive exercise using data from boys and girls in early adolescence (N = 421). Perceived sociocultural pressures to lose weight and build muscle, body image disturbance and appearance investment were associated with a compulsive need to exercise. Adolescents’ investment in appearance and body image disturbance fully mediated the relationship between sociocultural pressures and a compulsive need for exercise. There was no support for the meditational model in predicting adolescents’ frequency or duration of exercise. Results support the sociocultural model as an explanatory model for excessive exercise, but suggest appearance investment and body image disturbance are important mediators of sociocultural pressures.     

Psychosocial correlates of bulimic symptomatology among male athletes

ObjectivesTo examine the relationship of four psychosocial constructs – body dissatisfaction, restrained eating, drive for muscularity, and negative affect – that have been identified as potential risk factors for bulimic symptoms in male athletes.DesignWe used a cross-sectional design and self-report questionnaires.MethodsParticipants were 203 male, NCAA Division I athletes who were drawn from three different U.S. universities and who competed in 17 different varsity sports. Athletes completed self-report measures of body satisfaction, dietary restraint, drive for muscularity (i.e., muscularity behaviors, muscular body image), negative affect (i.e., fear, hostility, guilt, sadness), and bulimic symptomatology.ResultsAfter controlling for the effects of body mass and social desirability, hierarchical regression analysis showed that the psychosocial variables explained an additional 21% of the variance in bulimic symptoms. In the full model, engaging in muscle building behaviors (β = .16), such as lifting weights, as well as restricting caloric intake (β = .33) were associated with higher levels of bulimic symptomatology; negative affect and body dissatisfaction were not.ConclusionsMale athletes' bulimic symptomatology is best explained by the extent to which they report engaging in behaviors to become leaner (i.e., less body fat) and more muscular.     

Support for an expanded tripartite influence model with gay men

This study investigated whether an expanded tripartite influence model would represent gay men's experiences. This model was extended by adding partners and gay community involvement as sources of social influence and considering dual body image pathways (muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction) to muscularity enhancement and disordered eating behaviors. Latent variable structural equation modeling analyses upheld this model for 346 gay men. Dual body image pathways to body change behaviors were supported, although three unanticipated interrelationships emerged, suggesting that muscularity and body fat concerns and behaviors may be more integrated for gay men. Internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, appearance comparison, muscularity dissatisfaction, and body fat dissatisfaction were key mediators in the model. Of the sources of social influence, friend and media pressure to be lean, gay community involvement, and partner, friend, media, and family pressures to be muscular made incremental contributions. Unexpectedly, certain sources were directly connected to body change behaviors.     

Psychosocial factors as longitudinal predictors of bulimic symptomatology among female collegiate athletes

ObjectivesThis study examined the within-variable stability and prospective cross-lagged pathways between body satisfaction, negative affect, self-reported intentions to engage in dietary restraint, and bulimic symptomatology among female collegiate athletes in weight-sensitive sports.DesignThis study employed a cross-lagged longitudinal design.MethodFemale collegiate gymnasts, swimmers, and divers (n = 325) completed paper-pencil survey batteries at the beginning (Time 1) and end (Time 2) of their 5-month athletic season, including measures of body satisfaction, intentions to engage in dietary restraint, negative affect, and bulimic symptomatology.ResultsFrom Time 1 to Time 2, stability coefficients were highest for intentions to engage in dietary restraint and bulimic symptomatology. Significant cross-lagged relations revealed that Time 1 body satisfaction predicted a decrease in Time 2 negative affect, Time 1 bulimic symptomatology predicted a decrease in Time 2 body satisfaction, and Time 1 negative affect predicted a decrease in Time 2 intentions to engage in dietary restraint.ConclusionsThe relative stability of intentions to engage in dietary restraint and bulimic symptomatology suggests that certain disordered eating behaviors may become more resistant to change over the course of an athletic season and solidify while competing in college. The cross-lagged associations demonstrate the importance of targeting body satisfaction, negative affect, and bulimic behaviors when designing interventions for female collegiate athletes, and implementing such programs at the beginning of an athletic season. Risk factors for bulimic symptomatology should be examined over a time period longer than one athletic season and during transitional experiences (e.g., high school to college sports).     

Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptomatology: A Latent Structural Equation Modeling Analysis of Moderating Variables in 18-to-28-Year-Old Males

ABSTRACT. Although body dissatisfaction is recognized as the strongest risk factor for eating disturbances, a majority of young males are body dissatisfied, but do not concomitantly report severe levels of eating disorder symptomatology. The present investigation was designed to examine five theoretically relevant variables (i.e., body checking, emotional dysregulation, perfectionism, insecure-anxious attachment, and self-esteem) as potential moderators of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and two critical components of male eating disorder symptomatology: drive for muscularity and bulimic behaviors. Data collected from 551 Italian males between 18 and 28 years old were analyzed using latent structural equation modeling. The authors found that emotional dysregulation, body checking, insecure-anxious attachment and perfectionism intensified the relationship between body dissatisfaction and each criterion variable representing male eating disorder symptomatology; the interactions accounted respectively for an additional 2%, 7%, 4% and 5% of variance in drive for muscularity and for an additional 6%, 4%, 5%, and 2% of the variance in bulimic behaviors. By contrast self-esteem weakened this relationship and the interactions accounted for an additional 3% of the variance in both drive for muscularity and bulimic behaviors. Implications of these findings for prevention and treatment of male eating disturbances are discussed.     

Male body satisfaction: factorial and construct validity of the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men

Given the centrality of body dissatisfaction in the manifestation of eating, exercise, and affective disturbances in men, measurement of this construct becomes essential. Across 2 studies with male undergraduates (Ns = 189 and 188), the psychometric properties, including incremental validity and factor structure, of the 25-item Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men (BPSS-M) were examined. Three factors--Upper Body, Legs, and Face--that included items measuring both muscularity and leanness were established. The factors were internally consistent and temporally stable (over 6 months), and support was found for their convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Further, we established that, after controlling for social desirability and drive for muscularity, body satisfaction contributes uniquely to men's experience of disordered eating, negative affect and mood, and psychological well-being. The BPSS-M yielded reliable and valid scores with undergraduate men, suggesting that it may be useful for understanding not only body satisfaction but disordered eating and affective disturbances as well.     

The role of body-esteem in predicting disordered eating symptoms: A comparison of French aesthetic athletes and non-athletic females

ObjectivesTo explore the relative contributions of self-esteem, body-esteem components and body mass index to disordered eating in aesthetic female athletes and non-athletic females and specifically to determine if the body-esteem components are risk factors for disordered eating.MethodsOne hundred and fifty two participants, of which 61 rhythmic gymnasts, 42 synchronized swimmers and a non-athletic group of 49 female college students completed the self-esteem scale, the body-esteem scale (satisfaction with general appearance, weight satisfaction and others' evaluations of one's body and appearance), the eating attitudes test, and the body mass index was computed.ResultsResults showed a strong heteroscedasticity for EAT-26 and therefore scores were modeled separately for the three groups. For rhythmic gymnasts, the final regression model only emphasizes the role of body-esteem attribution. For the synchronized swimmers, the final regression model combines two body-esteem dimensions (body-esteem for weight and body-esteem attribution) and their interaction. For the non-athletic group, the final regression model only emphasizes body-esteem for weight. Body mass index and low self-esteem were not predictive of disordered eating and no significant relationship was found between body-esteem for appearance and eating attitudes scores. The use of exploratory graphs such as graphs of conditioning and level plots provided more detailed information on the relationship between body-esteem dimensions and eating attitude scores.ConclusionsResults contributed to the growing literature on disordered eating suggesting that attention must be paid to body-esteem for weight and attribution in the understanding of disordered eating and their interaction. Future research should take into consideration the complexity of these results and use a larger sample of aesthetic athletes to elaborate on the current findings.     

Assessing the Rising Emphasis on Muscularity for Women: Psychometric Properties of the Brazilian Version of the Female Muscularity Scale

The female appearance ideal has undergone considerable changes in recent years, resulting in increases in drive for muscularity among Brazilian women. The Female Muscularity Scale (FMS) was developed to assess muscularity concerns among U.S. women and was shown to be a promising measure of muscularity-related attitudes and behaviors. The present studies aimed to translate and culturally adapt the FMS to Brazilian Portuguese and to explore its factorial structure among Brazilian women (Study 1: n = 202, M_age = 24.40, SD = 5.03) and to confirm the factor structure as well as evaluate convergent and divergent validity and reliability of the FMS for young adult Brazilian women (Study 2: n = 382, M_age = 22.71, SD = 4.32). Exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factor structure (Attitudes and Behaviors subscales), each comprising five items. Confirmatory factor analysis upheld the original two-factor structure with good fit indices. The full scale and its subscales presented convergent validity through associations with measures of body dissatisfaction, drive for muscularity, body-ideal internalization, body checking and avoidance behaviors, disordered eating, and exercise engagement. Evidence of divergent validity was obtained in relation to self-esteem and depressive symptoms. The Brazilian version of FMS also presented adequate values for internal consistency and 2-week test-retest reliability. These findings support the Brazilian version of the FMS as a useful tool for investigating muscularity-related aspects of body image and body change behaviors that are increasingly a source of concern for women.

     

Drive for muscularity and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in men: The role of set shifting difficulties and weak central coherence

Set shifting difficulties and weak central coherence are information-processing biases associated with thinness-oriented eating and body image pathology in women. However, little is known about the relationship between these processing biases and muscularity-oriented eating and body image pathology. We investigated whether set shifting and central coherence were uniquely related to the drive for muscularity and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in a sample of 91 male undergraduates. Participants completed the Wisconsin Card Sort Test, the Matching Familiar Figures Task, the Drive for Muscularity scale, and a modified Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire. Results indicated that set shifting difficulties and weak central coherence were both uniquely positively associated with the drive for muscularity, and that set shifting difficulties were uniquely positively associated with muscularity-oriented disordered eating. Results are discussed with regard to the male experience of body image and eating pathology, and in regard to muscle dysmorphia.     

Gender Differences in Parental Influences on Adolescent Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating

This study explored gender differences in the relationship between parental influences and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among offspring. Participants were 221 male and 380 (63%) female French high school students of mean age 16 (SD?=?.95) years old, from the Toulouse area, who completed a survey exploring parental influences, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness and bulimic symptoms. Girls (compared to boys) perceived more maternal comments regarding both their own weight and shape, and the importance of physical appearance. Parental variables explained a larger amount of the variance in girls’ body dissatisfaction and disordered eating (compared to boys’). Findings support both a cumulative model and a gender-linked model of transmission of attitudes and behaviors related to shape and eating.     

Refinement of the tripartite influence model for men: dual body image pathways to body change behaviors

Although muscularity and body fat concerns are central to conceptualizing men's body image, they have not been examined together within existing structural models. This study refined the tripartite influence model (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999) by including dual body image pathways (muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction) to engagement in muscular enhancement and disordered eating behaviors, respectively, and added dating partners as a source of social influence. Latent variable structural equation modeling analyses supported this quadripartite model in 473 undergraduate men. Nonsignificant paths were trimmed and two unanticipated paths were added. Muscularity dissatisfaction and body fat dissatisfaction represented dual body image pathways to men's engagement in muscularity enhancement behaviors and disordered eating behaviors, respectively. Pressures to be mesomorphic from friends, family, media, and dating partners made unique contributions to the model. Internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, muscularity dissatisfaction, and body fat dissatisfaction played key meditational roles within the model.     

Muscularity versus leanness: an examination of body ideals and predictors of disordered eating in heterosexual and gay college students

The aim of the current study was to add to the growing body of research on men with eating disorders by examining the association between different types of body dissatisfaction (muscularity and body fat) and disordered eating in heterosexual and gay men. Two hundred four participants (over one-third were gay) completed measures assessing disordered eating, muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction, and sexual orientation. Body fat dissatisfaction, but not muscularity dissatisfaction, predicted disordered eating, dietary restraint, and concerns about weight and eating in gay and heterosexual men. These findings were consistent across all measures of body fat and muscularity dissatisfaction, providing stronger evidence that body fat dissatisfaction may be a greater risk factor for disordered eating in both gay and heterosexual college aged men than muscularity dissatisfaction.     

Attitude and knowledge changes in collegiate dancers following a short-term, team-centered prevention program on eating disorders

Eating knowledge, nutritional knowledge, and psychological changes among female collegiate dancers were examined before and after a 4-wk. team-centered program on sport nutrition, exercise, and disordered eating consequences. Collegiate female dancers from two NCAA Division I institutions participated in a control (n = 19; M age = 19.1 yr., SD = 1.0) or intervention (n = 21; M age = 19.2 yr., SD = 1.2) group. Measures were administered to both groups before and after intervention to assess eating disorders, depression, and nutritional and disordered eating knowledge. There was a statistically significant increase in scores on nutritional and overall eating disorder knowledge in the intervention group compared to the control group. Mean scores on depression, drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and maturity fears decreased in the intervention group.     

Body dissatisfaction, ethnic identity, and disordered eating among African American women

Initial research suggested that only European American women developed eating disorders (Garner, 1993), yet recent studies have shown that African American women do experience them (e.g., Lester & Petrie, 1998b; Mulholland & Mintz, 2001) and also may be negatively affected by similar sociocultural variables. In this study, we examined a sociocultural model of eating disorders for African American women but included the influences of ethnic identity (e.g., Hall, 1995; Helms, 1990). Participants (N = 322) were drawn from 5 different universities. They completed measures representing ethnic identity, societal pressures regarding thinness, internalization of societal beauty ideals, body image concerns, and disordered eating. Structural equation modeling revealed that ethnic identity was inversely, and societal pressures regarding thinness directly, related to internalization of societal beauty ideals. Societal pressures regarding thinness was also related to greater body image concerns. Both internalization of societal beauty ideals and body image concerns were positively associated with disordered eating (R2 = .79). Overall, the final model fit the data well, supporting its generalizability and the importance of ethnic identity in determining risk.     

The Role of Self-Objectification in the Experience of Women with Eating Disorders

Objectification theory has linked self-objectification to negative emotional experiences and disordered eating behavior in cultures that sexually objectify the female body. This link has not been empirically tested in a clinical sample of women with eating disorders. In the present effort, 209 women in residential treatment for eating disorders completed self-report measures of self-objectification, body shame, media influence, and drive for thinness on admission to treatment. Results demonstrated that the internalization of appearance ideals from the media predicted self-objectification, whereas using the media as an informational source about appearance and feeling pressured to conform to media ideals did not. Self-objectification partially mediated the relationship between internalized appearance ideals and drive for thinness; internalized appearance ideals continued to be an independent predictor of variance. In accordance with objectification theory, body shame partially mediated the relationship between self-objectification and drive for thinness in women with eating disorders; self-objectification continued to be an independent predictor of variance. These results illustrate the importance of understanding and targeting the experience of self-objectification in women with eating disorders or women at risk for eating disorders.