Kinaesthetic imagery ability moderates the effect of an AO+MI intervention on golf putt performance: A pilot study

BackgroundPrevious research has established that motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) independently enhance the performance and learning of motor skills. Recent studies have demonstrated that combining AO and MI (AO + MI) elicits increased activity in motor regions of the brain and enhances performance more than either AO or MI alone. Kinesthetic imagery (KI) ability refers to the ease with which one can sense their own body and imagine how a movement feels during a task (Malouin et al., 2007). KI ability may be of particular importance when engaging with AO + MI as the provision of an external visual stimulus through AO renders the visual component of MI redundant.ObjectiveThe current study aims to add to the emerging body of behavioural evidence demonstrating the performance benefits of AO + MI by exploring the effect of an AO + MI intervention on golf putting performance, as well as exploring the role that KI ability represents in AO + MI effectiveness.MethodRight-handed male golfers (N = 44) of varying skill level performed twenty 15-foot putts before and after a 3.5 min AO + MI intervention (AO + MI group; mean handicap = 7.5, SD = 4.3) or a similarly timed passive reading task (Control group; mean handicap = 11.5, SD = 5.4). Using the MIQ-3 questionnaire, participants in both experimental groups were classified according to kinesthetic imagery ability where: a mean score ≥6 were classified as good imagers. Performance accuracy was measured using mean radial error (MRE), precision was quantified via bivariate error (BVE) and putter kinematics were recorded by SAM Puttlab.ResultsResults from a series of ANCOVAs indicate that good kinesthetic imagers who received the AO + MI intervention were significantly more precise (BVRE) on the putting task than good kinesthetic imagers in the Control group (p = 0.041, d = 0.678). Good kinesthetic imagers in the intervention group also significantly outperformed good kinesthetic imagers in the control group on a measure of speed control (SD of error scores along the axis of progression) in golf putting (p = 0.041).ConclusionsOur results suggest that the presence of AO with MI increases the relevance of kinesthetic cues, that good kinesthetic imagers are able to utilise for subsequent performance benefits during the putting task. We discuss the increased importance of kinesthetic awareness/feel following the intervention as an explanation for such improvements in performance.     

Self-modelled versus skilled-peer modelled AO+MI effects on skilled sensorimotor performance

Action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) are simulation states that have been demonstrated to independently enhance motor skill performance. Historically, AO and MI were examined in isolation from one another; however recent neurophysiological and behavioural evidence indicates that using MI during AO (AO+MI) may be more potent at enhancing performance than either simulation state alone. The AO component of AO+MI is typically delivered via a self-modelled or peer-skilled model paradigm, via an observation video. The purpose of the proposed study is to further examine the implementation of AO+MI states by directly comparing the effectiveness of self-modelled AO+MI with peer-skilled modelled AO+MI to augment performance on a golf putting task with a sample of 56 skilled golfers. Our primary hypothesis predicts that skilled participants who engage with a self-modelled intervention will improve their performance more than those engaging with a peer-skilled model intervention. This hypothesis is predicated on the idea that self-modelling will be used in the context of performers’ existing mental representation and will facilitate improved performance, whereas the peer modelling may destabilize skilled performers’ existing mental representation.     

Motor learning without physical practice: The effects of combined action observation and motor imagery practice on cup-stacking speed

In this study we explored training effects for combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) instructions on a complex cup-stacking task, without physical practice. Using a Graeco-Latin Square design, we randomly assigned twenty-six participants into four groups. This counterbalanced the within-participant factor of practice condition (AO + MI, AO, MI, Control) across four cup-stacking tasks, which varied in their complexity. On each of the three consecutive practice days participants experienced twenty trials under each of the three mental practice conditions. On each trial, a first-person perspective video depicted bilateral cup-stacking performed by an experienced model. During AO, participants passively observed this action, responding only to occasional colour cues. For AO + MI, participants imagined performing the observed action and synchronised their concurrent MI with the display. For MI, a sequence of pictures cued imagery of each stage of the task. Analyses revealed a significant main effect of practice condition both at the ’surprise’ post-test (Day 3) and at the one-week retention test. At both time points movement execution times were significantly shorter for AO + MI compared with AO, MI and the Control. Execution times were also shorter overall at the retention compared with the post-test. These results demonstrate that a complex novel motor task can be acquired without physical training. Practitioners can therefore use AO + MI practice to supplement physical practice and optimise skill learning.     

Motor imagery during action observation enhances imitation of everyday rhythmical actions in children with and without developmental coordination disorder

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) exhibit deficits both in imitation and motor imagery (MI) compared to typically developing children. Combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) instructions can however enhance automatic imitation in both groups. In the present study we investigated the effects of AO + MI instructions on intentional imitation in children both with (n = 13) and without DCD (n = 12). On each trial participants observed and/or imagined before executing a familiar rhythmical pantomime action. These target actions were either habitually fast (tooth brushing or window wiping) or habitually slow (paint brushing or face washing), in the vertical or horizontal plane. Within each habitual speed, the target action speed was subtly manipulated across trials (fast vs. slow). Instruction condition was manipulated across three blocks of 16 trials: (1) observe before imitating the target action; (2) observe then imagine the action before imitating; (3) observe while imagining the same action before imitating (AO + MI). Kinematic analyses revealed typically developing children imitated the observed cycle times significantly better than children with DCD. A main effect of instruction showed imitation improved for AO + MI compared to the other two instructions. Within-group analyses found a significant advantage in DCD for AO + MI compared to observe then imagine. In typically developing children, imitation was significantly enhanced for AO + MI compared to observe then imitate. Combined AO + MI instructions therefore represent a promising new approach to refining performance of everyday rhythmical actions in children both with and without DCD, with implications for movement therapy and sports training.     

Imagery ability classification: Commentary on «Kinaesthetic imagery ability moderates the effect of an AO+MI intervention on golf putt performance: A pilot study» by McNeill et al. (2020)

McNeill et al. (2020) recently published a study that first aimed to assess the effect of a combination of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) on golf putt performance and then to determine if the evolution of this performance could be moderated by participants’ kinesthetic imagery ability. To assess golfers’ MI ability, the authors used the third version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. Participants notably self-estimated their kinesthetic MI ability by using a Likert-type scale, with scores ranging from 1 “very difficult to feel” to 7 “very easy to feel”. Athletes were categorized as either “poor” or “good” kinesthetic imagers, with mean scores of 4.93 and 6.63, respectively, in the intervention groups. Although a similar categorization procedure had previously been used in the literature for “good imagers”, the mean scores for “poor” imagers were much higher than those noted in previous studies evaluating the effect of MI ability on motor accuracy. Moreover, the low number of participants in the intervention group (n = 22) meant that participants were considered “poor” imagers even though their mean scores corresponded to “quite easy to feel” kinesthetic images of movements. This could notably explain the lack of differences between “poor” and “good” imagers in terms of putting performance in the intervention group. Despite these methodological limitations, the results of McNeill et al.‘s study show promising evidence for the efficacy of an AO plus MI intervention in relation to putting performance and should lead to further investigations. We suggest that research in the area of motor imagery ability include larger samples to explore, in individuals with very low imagery ability scores, the effects of the combination of AO and MI on motor performance.     

Motor imagery combined with action observation training optimized for individual motor skills further improves motor skills close to a plateau

The acquisition of high-level motor skills beyond a “plateau” is important in sports training and rehabilitation. We aimed to investigate whether motor skills close to a plateau state can be improved further by performing motor imagery (MI) training while observing movements with difficulty levels optimized for individual motor skills. The subjects were divided randomly into four groups (n = 10 per group): the control group and three groups of MI combined with action observation (MI + AO) training with varying difficulty levels. The task was to rotate the two cork balls 20 times counterclockwise using the left hand. The subjects performed 30 and 10 successful trials of this task before and after MI + AO training, respectively. In the three training groups, MI training was performed while observing videos showing ball rotation movements adjusted to the same level, a moderately higher level, or a remarkably higher level of difficulty than that achieved by the individual subjects. The improvement rate of the ball rotation time after MI + AO training was significantly higher in the moderate-difficulty than in the control group and remarkably higher level of difficulty group. The other two MI + AO training groups did not differ significantly compared with the control group. The vividness of the MI during MI + AO training was significantly greater in the moderate-difficulty vs. the remarkably-high-difficulty group. These results suggest that performing MI training while observing movement at a level that is moderately higher than an individual's ability can promote improvements in motor skills (close to a plateau state) in rehabilitation and sports training. The vividness of MI may be an important index for determining the difficulty level of the movement to be observed during MI + AO training.     

The effect of augmented feedback on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills: A systematic review

BackgroundAugmented feedback is often provided by coaches and practitioners as a method to enhance the performance of athletes and learners. When implementing a feedback intervention, it is important to assess the expertise of the learner and the complexity of the skill, to ensure an appropriate feedback modality, frequency, and timing is provided. However, researchers have a limited understanding of how these variables interact to influence the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills.ObjectivesThe purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effects of augmented feedback on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills in an adult population.MethodsA systematic literature search was conducted on electronic databases, PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO, from inception to March 2020, with a revised search completed to January 2022. The search terms used were related to augmented feedback and motor performance and learning. Studies were included if they consisted of a randomised control trial with pre- and retention-testing measures, which investigated an AF intervention on a gross motor and/or sport-specific skill in a healthy adult population. Risk of bias was assessed using the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomised trials (RoB2).ResultsTwenty-four studies were included, with a total of 895 participants. Most studies reported a learning improvement following the provision of AF. One study documented a decrease in performance, and two studies reported no learning improvement Conflicting evidence was reported regarding which feedback frequency, timing, and duration was most appropriate. Furthermore, the inconsistency in methodological designs (control group types; timing of retention-tests; lack of retention tests) limited the comparisons that could be made between studies. Eighteen studies reported a high risk of bias, with the remaining six presenting some concerns.ConclusionAlthough studies have shown positive effects of AF on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills, the majority are at a high risk of bias. Additionally, studies lacked standardisation in methodology, and results surrounding features of AF interventions were conflicting. Despite the conceptually sound rationale, further research is required to provide stronger evidence and a more robust understanding to better inform practitioners on how AF truly impacts the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills.RegistrationThis systematic review was registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/mrxzg) (10.17605/OSF.IO/MRXZG)     

Combining Action Observation and Motor Imagery Improves Eye–Hand Coordination during Novel Visuomotor Task Performance

Abstract

In this study, we compared the effectiveness of concurrent action observation and motor imagery (AO?+?MI), observing with the intent to imitate (active observation; AO), and passive observation (PO) training interventions for improving eye–hand coordination. Fifty participants were assigned to five groups [AO?+?MI, AO, PO, physical practice (PP); control] and performed a visuomotor rotation task, whilst eye movements were recorded. Each participant then performed 20 task trials in a training intervention before repeating the visuomotor rotation task in a post-test. As expected, PP produced the greatest improvement in task performance and eye–hand coordination. However, in comparison to the control group, AO?+?MI training produced a statistically significant increase in both task performance and eye–hand coordination, but no such improvements were found following AO or PO.     

Rhythmic Auditory Music Stimulation increases task-distraction during exercise among cardiac rehabilitation patients: A secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to determine the mechanisms by which Rhythmic Auditory Music Stimulation (RAMS) improves exercise among patients participating in cardiac rehabilitation.Methods168 English speaking patients over the age of 18 years, were recruited from the Cardiac Rehabilitation and Prevention Program. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups (n = 56 each) as part of a 12-week intervention: (1) RAMS (2) preference-based audiobooks, or (3) white noise or silence audio-controls. All participants received an iPod with the audio intervention to maintain blinding. Study outcomes included pace-deviation between actual vs. prescribed exercise, self-reported arousal, perceived exertion, task-attentiveness during exercise and perceptual experiences associated with the audio-content itself.Trial registryClinicaltrials. gov NCT02946060.ResultsAn individual's actual exercise pace was highly correlated with their prescribed exercise pace, with no significant differences in pace deviation across interventions (P = 0.61). Patients randomized to RAMS or audiobooks reported significantly lower arousal scores during exercise (P = 0.01), lower exercise-attentiveness (P < 0.001), and modestly lower perceived exertion (P = 0.06) during exercise than did controls. Participants assigned to RAMS and audiobooks reported being more attentive to, and happy with, their overall audio-experiences during exercise than controls (P < 0.001).ConclusionsRAMS playlists and audiobooks induced a mood-enhancing task-distraction effect during exercise. Such findings may underscore the potential benefits of preference-based audio-content during exercise.     

Women's exercise identity increases after a 16-week exercise RCT and is linked to behavior maintenance at follow-up

BackgroundRegular exercise is critical for disease prevention, but adherence to public health guidelines is poor. Exercise identity is purported to be associated with exercise behavior maintenance, but the extant literature is largely cross-sectional and of low/modest quality.PurposeTo examine change in exercise identity after completion of a supervised exercise intervention, as well as associations between change in exercise identity and exercise maintenance at 6-months follow-up.MethodsN = 276 insufficiently physically active women were randomized to a 16-week, supervised exercise training intervention with 4 conditions fully crossed on intensity (vigorous/moderate) and duration (long/short). Exercise identity was measured pre- and post-intervention and assessments of exercise motivation and behavior frequency were collected at 6-months post-intervention follow-up.ResultsOn average, participants experienced a statistically significant change in exercise identity over the course of the intervention, t (128) = 7.94, p < .001, but identity change scores did not differ across training conditions, p = .91. Identity change was significantly positively related to changes in other theory-informed, motivation-based determinants of exercise, and predicted an additional 16.17 min of exercise per week, on average, at follow-up, b = 16.76, t (103) = 2.30, p = .023.ConclusionsParticipants experienced increased self-identification with exercise after 16-weeks of training, but training volume did not influence the amount of identity change. As expected, greater change in exercise identity was associated with higher levels of exercise behavior at 6-months post-intervention follow-up (ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02032628 ).     

Searching for answers: expert pattern recognition and planning

Does expertise mostly stem from pattern recognition or look-ahead search? van Opheusden et al. contribute to this important debate in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence (AI) with a multi-method, multi-experiment study and a new model. Using a novel, relatively simple board game, they show that players increase depth of search when improving their skill.     

Cognitive mediation of putting: Use of a think-aloud measure and implications for studies of golf-putting in the laboratory

ObjectivesWhereas accounts of skilled performance based on automaticity (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Fitts & Posner, 1967) emphasize reduced cognitive involvement in advanced skill, other accounts propose that skilled performance relies on increased cognitive control (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). The objective of this study was to test predictions differentiating the automaticity and cognitive control accounts by assessing thinking during golf putting.DesignThe cognitive processes of less-skilled and more-skilled golfers were examined during putting using concurrent, think-aloud verbal reports. The design included putting conditions that differed in complexity and thus the need to adapt the putt to the particular conditions.MethodPutting complexity was manipulated via changes to putt length and perceived stress during putting. Putts were executed from two starting locations (i.e., the same starting location as the previous putt or a new starting location).ResultsThe analysis showed that, during putting: more thoughts were verbalized overall by more-skilled golfers than less-skilled golfers; both groups verbalized more thoughts overall during higher-complexity putts (i.e., longer distance putts, and putts under higher stress when executed from a new starting location) than lower-complexity putts; and the two groups did not differ significantly in the number of thoughts related to motor mechanics.ConclusionsThe results of this study provide support for a cognitive control account of skilled performance and suggest that the path to skilled performance involves the acquisition of more refined higher-level cognitive representations mediating planning and analysis.     

The influence of attentional focus on the development of skill representation in a complex action

ObjectivesRecent research has indicated that performers' mental representation of a motor skill changes over the course of learning. In the present study, we sought to ascertain whether the type of instructions (instructions that emphasize either an internal or external focus of attention) influences the development of skill representation during motor learning.DesignParticipants without golf experience were recruited to practice a golf putting task over the course of three training days. Participants were randomly assigned to either an internal focus (focus on the swing of the arms; n = 10) or external focus (focus on the speed of the ball roll; n = 10) learning group. Changes in putting performance and mental representation structure were assessed over the course of learning, as well as during a follow-up retention test two days after practice.MethodsMental representation structure was measured employing the structural dimensional analysis of mental representations (SDA-M), which provided psychometric data on the structure of the mental representation in long-term memory. Additionally, the change in putting accuracy and consistency was recorded over the course of learning.ResultsFindings indicated that the external focus group performed with greater accuracy and consistency during training, and revealed a larger degree of development in their mental representation of the putting task.ConclusionsOverall, our findings suggest that facilitating the link between an action and its effect by means of an external focus is crucial for motor performance as well as the development of skill representation.     

Testing motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action on device-measured physical activity in the context of a weight loss maintenance digital intervention: A secondary analysis of the NoHoW trial

BackgroundTo date, few digital behavior change interventions for weight loss maintenance focusing on long-term physical activity promotion have used a sound intervention design grounded on a logic model underpinned by behavior change theories. The current study is a secondary analysis of the weight loss maintenance NoHoW trial and investigated putative mediators of device-measured long-term physical activity levels (six to 12 months) in the context of a digital intervention.MethodsA subsample of 766 participants (Age = 46.2 ± 11.4 years; 69.1% female; original NoHoW sample: 1627 participants) completed all questionnaires on motivational and self-regulatory variables and had all device-measured physical activity data available for zero, six and 12 months. We examined the direct and indirect effects of Virtual Care Climate on post intervention changes in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and number of steps (six to 12 months) through changes in the theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action during the intervention period (zero to six months), as conceptualized in the logic model.ResultsModel 1 tested the mediation processes on Steps and presented a poor fit to the data. Model 2 tested mediation processes on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and presented poor fit to the data. Simplified models were also tested considering the autonomous motivation and the controlled motivation variables independently. These changes yielded good results and both models presented very good fit to the data for both outcome variables. Percentage of explained variance was negligible for all models. No direct or indirect effects were found from Virtual Care Climate to long term change in outcomes. Indirect effects occurred only between the sequential paths of the theory-driven mediators.ConclusionThis was one of the first attempts to test a serial mediation model considering psychological mechanisms of change and device-measured physical activity in a 12-month longitudinal trial. The model explained a small proportion of variance in post intervention changes in physical activity. We found different pathways of influence on theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms but limited evidence that these constructs impacted on actual behavior change. New approaches to test these relationships are needed. Challenges and several alternatives are discussed.Trial registrationISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN88405328. Registered December 16, 2016, https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN88405328.     

Elite golfers are characterized by psychomotor refinement in cognitive-motor processes

The present study extends the sport neuroscience literature by comparing elite and amateur golfers during golf putting and examining the essential cognitive-motor processes that may contribute to understanding the superior cognitive-motor performance of skilled performers. Twenty elite and 18 amateur golfers were recruited to perform 60 putts while individual EEGs were recorded. Compared with the amateur golfers, the elite golfers were characterized by (1) lower alpha 2 power at Pz and T8 2 s before putt release; (2) lower alpha 2 power at Fz and T8 and lower mu 2 power 1 s before putting; and (3) lower alpha 2 coherence at Fz–T7 and Fz–T8. This suggests that the elite golfers had higher levels of attention to response motor programming and visuospatial attention and less cognitive-motor interference before putting. These findings not only point to the importance of refining brain processes but also specify essential cognitive-motor processes for superior performance in athletes.     

The effects of rational emotive behavior therapy and motivational interviewing on emotions,automatic thoughts,and perceived performance of elite female volleyball players

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to examine the effect of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy intervention alone (REBT-A) or with motivational interviewing (REBT + MI) on the emotions, automatic thoughts, and perceived performance of elite female volleyball players.Designand method: Single-case, staggered multiple-baseline AB and ABC designs were adapted in the study. Five female volleyball players participated in the study, of which three players participated in the REBT-A and two players participated in the REBT + MI. The athletes were competing in the national volleyball league (M_age = 28, SD = 5.52). All participants were elite athletes with at least ten years of sports experience. Three scores (T1, T2, T3) were calculated for the athletes' perceived performance, emotion, and automatic thoughts. T1 was the baseline score calculated before the sessions. T2 was calculated after the first two sessions (the first three sessions for REBT + MI) and T3 was calculated after the last three sessions. In the data analysis, percentage changes, effect size, and visual analyzes were used in the T1, T2, and T3 scores.ResultsREBT-A and REBT + MI interventions increased perceived performance, positive emotions, and positive automatic thoughts, and decreased negative emotions and negative automatic thoughts. REBT + MI was more advantageous than REBT-A in increasing positive emotion, positive automatic thought, and perceived performance.ConclusionsAs a result, REBT alone or with motivational interviewing has a positive effect on perceived performance, emotions, and automatic thoughts, but REBT + MI has greater potential to increase positive constructs.     

Unlocking a new dimension in the speed–accuracy trade-off

Why do we sometimes spend too much time on seemingly impossible-to-solve tasks instead of just moving on? Masís et al. provide a new perspective on the speed–accuracy trade-off (SAT), showing that, although prolonging deliberation looks suboptimal in the short run, it is a long-term investment that helps organisms reach proficient performance more rapidly.     

Beyond visual fixations and gaze behaviour. Using pupillometry to examine the mechanisms in the planning and motor performance of a golf putt

The present study assessed the potential value of using pupillometry to explore skill level differences in the allocation of attention during planning and performance of a golf putt across three putting conditions of varying complexity. Although numerous studies have reported on skill level differences in performers' visual search behaviours, performance accuracy and quiet eye duration (QE) across a range of performance settings, few have provided an objective measure of the allocation of attention during task performance. Fourteen participants were assigned to two groups [low handicap (LHG) and high handicap (HHG)] completing ten putts in three conditions; right to left (RL), left to right (LR) and straight (ST) from 1.75 m while wearing a mobile eye tracker. Skill based differences in the allocation of attention during green exploration and skill execution were observed. Pupil constriction observed for both groups during the QE period provides evidence of increased workload directly related to the increased motor task precision required in the physical performance of the putt. LHG had significantly more fixations of longer duration than their HHG counterparts. Distinct differences were also evident between skill levels in relation to number of fixations, fixation duration and QE duration on each putting condition. The significantly longer QE duration and larger pupil constrictions exhibited by skilled performers offer evidence of a distinctive concentration of cognitive activity characterised by highly automated processes.     

Retention of Quiet Eye in Older Skilled Basketball Players

There is mounting research to suggest that cognitive and motor expertise is more resistant to age-related decline than more general capacities. The authors investigated the retention of skills in medium-aged skilled (n = 14) and older-aged skilled (n = 7) athletes by comparing them with medium-aged less skilled (n = 15) and older-aged less skilled (n = 15) participants. Participants performed basketball free throws and dart throws as a transfer task under standardized conditions. Motor performance (accuracy) and perceptual performance (quiet eye) were examined across the four groups. There were significant differences between skill groups and age groups in throwing accuracy on both throwing tasks. Skilled players outperformed less skilled and medium-aged players outperformed older-aged players in basketball and dart throws. There were no significant differences in quiet eye duration across the skill or age groups in either task. These results indicate expertise in a perceptual motor task such as the basketball free throw can be retained in older athletes and that present models of skill maintenance should be re-evaluated to consider the issue of transfer.     

Central neuronal motor behaviour in skilled and less skilled novices – Approaching sports-specific movement techniques

Research on motor behavioural processes preceding voluntary movements often refers to analysing the readiness potential (RP). For this, decades of studies used laboratory setups with controlled sports-related actions. Further, recent applied approaches focus on athlete-non-athlete comparisons, omitting possible effects of training history on RP. However, RP preceding real sport-specific movements in accordance to skill acquisition remains to be elucidated.Therefore, after familiarization 16 right-handed males with no experience in archery volunteered to perform repeated sports-specific movements, i.e. 40 arrow-releasing shots at 60 s rest on a 15 m distant standard target. Continuous, synchronised EEG and right limb EMG recordings during arrow-releasing served to detect movement onsets for RP analyses over distinct cortical motor areas. Based on attained scores on target, archery novices were, a posteriori, subdivided into a skilled and less skilled group. EMG results for mean values revealed no significant changes (all p > 0.05), whereas RP amplitudes and onsets differed between groups but not between motor areas. Arrow-releasing preceded larger RP amplitudes (p < 0.05) and later RP onsets (p < 0.05) in skilled compared to less skilled novices. We suggest this to reflect attentional orienting and greater effort that accompanies central neuronal preparatory states of a sports-specific movement.