禀赋效应对产品更换决策的影响

以禀赋效应理论为研究基础, 通过两个情景实验对产品更换过程中买卖双方的决策心理进行了研究。实验1表明, 在以旧换新活动中新产品的买方对旧产品的价格有高估的倾向, 对新产品的价格有低估的倾向; 相反, 新产品的卖方对旧产品的价格有低估的倾向, 而对于新产品的价格有高估的倾向, 这说明产品更换决策中存在着双重的禀赋效应。实验2表明, 新产品的买方对旧产品的属性评价显著高于新产品的卖方, 对新产品的属性评价显著低于新产品的卖方, 说明属性评价也存在禀赋效应的特征。双重禀赋效应的存在从消费者行为的角度解释了为什么消费者会出现创新抵制行为。     

禀赋效应的心理机制及其影响因素

禀赋效应是指个体在拥有某物品时对该物品的估价高于没有拥有该物品时的估价的现象。这一现象在行为经济学中普遍存在。禀赋效应的研究范式包括经典研究范式与物物交换范式。禀赋效应的心理机制主要包括损失规避与查询理论。禀赋效应的影响因素主要包括认知角度、动机、情绪、交易物品的特征、研究设计的选择等。未来的研究需要从禀赋效应的适用条件、产生根源、研究范式的改进等方面进一步探讨。     

禀赋效应的研究现状与展望

禀赋效应是指一旦某物品成为自己拥有的一部分,人们倾向给予它更高的价值评价。对于禀赋效应的解释主要是损失规避理论和自尊理论。影响禀赋效应产生的因素主要有物品价格的不确定性、好奇心效应、交易需求效应等。神经机制研究表明,内侧前额叶(MPFC)、伏隔核(NAcc)、岛叶(insula)等脑区与禀赋效应密切相关,神经机制研究为全面理解禀赋效应提供了新的途径。     

谈判双方利益分布的一种逻辑类型

在改革开放的今天,谈判确实是人与人之间交流信息、调整利益的重要工具之一。在此,我们想通过对一实例的分析来说明谈判双方利益分布的一种逻辑类型。一顾客到某个体商店买一件连衣裙。卖方要价48元。买方说“太贵了!”转身欲走。卖方连忙说:“你不如穿上试一试,如果合适的话,我可以考虑便宜一些。”买方试完衣服后,卖方又说:“这衣服你穿上太合适了,你说个价吧!”买方思索了半天说:“45元。”卖方爽快地说:“45元,我卖定了!”于是双方以45元达成协议,彼此都很满意。从这个例子中可以看出,买卖双方就价格问题,有各自的立场,买方希望价格越低越好,卖方则相反。在交易中,     

源于“反常”终于“常理”的禀赋效应

如果忽略收入影响和交易成本, 愿意为一样物品支付的价格应等于愿意出售的价格。而塞勒教授却发现, 现实生活中有一些“反常”现象, 个体会对自己所拥有的物品赋予更高的价值, 造成“愿意支付价格”和“愿意出售价格”的不一致。塞勒利用预期理论中的损失厌恶对这些反常现象进行解释, 并将该现象称为禀赋效应(endowment effect)。此后, 众多研究者从不同角度对该效应进行了探索和论证。文章详细梳理了禀赋效应的多种解释机制, 包括损失厌恶、心理所有权理论、偏差的认知过程以及进化的观点等, 论证了禀赋效应符合“常理”的原因, 同时也探讨了禀赋效应在商业销售策略和政府拆迁政策等方面的应用前景。     

心理账户和薪酬激励的实验研究

心理账户是人们在心理上对结果,尤其是经济结果的编码,分类和估价的过程,它反映了人们在进行资金财富决策过程中的心理认知过程。心理账户有着有别于经济账户的运算法则。实验研究发现,改变薪酬的预期参照点,可以改变人们对同一结果的认知评价,从而达到不同的激励效果;低金额奖酬时人们倾向于选择物品,而高金额奖酬是人们倾向与选择现金。     

信任倾向与主观参照对网上购物意向的影响

该研究对225名大学生、在职人员进行问卷调查,通过分层回归分析探讨了信任倾向与主观参照对网上购物意向的影响。结果表明:男性在职人员的信任倾向要显著大于男大学生的信任倾向,而对于女性,这种差异不显著。工作与否、性别、学历在信任倾向、主观参照以及网上购物意向上差异不显著。主观参照对网上购物意向的影响受到信任倾向的缓冲,相对于高信任倾向的人,低信任倾向人的网上购物意向更容易受到主观参照的影响。信任倾向和主观参照对网上购物意向都有显著影响,但主观参照的回归效应更大。     

歧视知觉对初中生的合作倾向与行为的影响

本文通过两个研究揭示歧视知觉对初中生合作倾向与行为的影响, 研究1采用问卷法对752名初中生进行为期一年的追踪, 运用潜变量交叉滞后结构方程模型分析歧视知觉与合作倾向之间的纵向预测关系; 研究2采用动态公共物品困境实验考察歧视知觉对合作行为的影响, 以及群体类型的调节作用。结果发现：(1)初中生的歧视知觉与合作倾向存在显著负相关; T1合作倾向可负向预测T2歧视知觉, T2歧视知觉可负向预测T3合作倾向; (2)在公共物品困境前三轮投资比和贡献率上, 歧视知觉和群体类型的交互效应显著; 而在后三轮仅发现歧视知觉在投资比和贡献率上的主效应, 以及群体类型在贡献率上的主效应。以上结果表明, 歧视知觉与合作倾向之间存在纵向螺旋式影响; 歧视知觉对前期合作行为的影响受到群体类型的调节, 但随着互动时间延长, 该调节作用消失。     

交易双方时间成本不同的博弈分析与实验论证

本文在实验经济学的基础上 ,用心理学的实验法 ,模拟了现实中在买卖交易价格信息不对称的情境下 ,时间压力不同对价格的影响问题。通过 62名被试对 2 0个小商品进行交易的前后两阶段——时间压力分别针对卖方和买方时的价格差异 ,即交易利润分成的差异 ,证实了时间压力对价格交易的显著作用。并使以往实验经济学交易价格封顶 (有最高价 )、交易双方被试相互熟悉以及交易被试个体差异因素没有相对控制等问题得到了改进。     

负期望条件下的末期效应：情绪动机诱发风险寻求

风险决策中, 末期效应指“个体在重复多轮决策任务的末尾冒险倾向升高”的现象, 但其内在机制尚不明确。三个研究的结果发现, 在实验室环境和自然环境下, 不同期望(负期望值和等期望值)条件下被试在最后一轮的投资均会显著增加, 末期效应稳定出现, 且不受到最后一轮决策前被试所拥有的代币数量的影响。即, 就算在风险选项收益更小的情况下, 被试也会倾向于在最后一轮选择高风险选项, 且这一效应是参照点独立的, 这说明末期效应的出现是源于对情绪满足感的追求。未来研究可从这一点切入, 进一步研究情绪影响风险决策过程的机制。     

Time pressure and the endowment effect

This research examines how time pressure influences bidding behavior in experiment auctions. The studies reported herein investigate how time pressure systematically impacts individual trading of an endowed object by looking at the disparity between buying and selling prices for that object. Study 1 tests whether the effect of time pressure eliminates the disparity between selling and buying prices. In Study 2, transaction demand is employed to see whether sellers and buyers are more sensitive to changes in the item (amount of work). In Study 3, sellers and buyers access information of differing valence in the task. In Study 4, the framing of the reference price is manipulated to moderate the endowment effect. These studies indicate that under time pressure, endowment bias is reduced and, more generally, elucidate the role of trading behavior in decision making.     

Making Decisions in Foreign Languages: Weaker Senses of Ownership Attenuate the Endowment Effect

Although the number of bilingual consumers is expanding, research on the impact of language on consumer decision making is scarce. The current research examines the endowment effect, which is a fundamental consumer decision‐making regularity, under native versus foreign language processing. I show that the endowment effect, which refers to higher valuation of a given product by sellers than buyers, is attenuated when sellers and buyers process information in a foreign language due to a decrease in sellers’ valuation of the product. I further document empirical evidence for the underlying mechanism of this finding. Thinking in a foreign language diminishes the impact of affective reactions on sellers’ judgment, which results in lowered sense of psychological ownership. This lowered sense of psychological ownership significantly decreases sellers’ valuation to a level comparable to the valuation of buyers. The implications of these results for theory and practice, and avenues for future research are discussed.     

The role of affect in the WTA/WTP disparity

Four studies demonstrated robust within‐ and between‐subject differences in willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) and willingness‐to‐accept (WTA) measures of the value of lottery tickets. Buyers and sellers attended to different numerical cues and interpreted the same numbers differently when setting these two kinds of monetary values. Affective influences appeared to guide the valuation process. Buyers with stronger positive feelings about owning a ticket were willing to pay more for a ticket; sellers with stronger negative feelings about no longer having a ticket required a greater minimum payment in exchange for their ticket. In addition, the WTA/WTP disparity tended to be greater for more affectively‐laden lottery tickets. The results suggest that WTA and WTP prices are constructed using salient numerical cues and affective feelings. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bad riddance or good rubbish? Ownership and not loss aversion causes the endowment effect

People typically demand more to relinquish the goods they own than they would be willing to pay to acquire those goods if they did not already own them (the endowment effect). The standard economic explanation of this phenomenon is that people expect the pain of relinquishing a good to be greater than the pleasure of acquiring it (the loss aversion account). The standard psychological explanation is that people are reluctant to relinquish the goods they own simply because they associate those goods with themselves and not because they expect relinquishing them to be especially painful (the ownership account). Because sellers are usually owners, loss aversion and ownership have been confounded in previous studies of the endowment effect. In two experiments that deconfounded them, ownership produced an endowment effect but loss aversion did not. In Experiment 1, buyers were willing to pay just as much for a coffee mug as sellers demanded if the buyers already happened to own an identical mug. In Experiment 2, buyers’ brokers and sellers’ brokers agreed on the price of a mug, but both brokers traded at higher prices when they happened to own mugs that were identical to the ones they were trading. In short, the endowment effect disappeared when buyers were owners and when sellers were not, suggesting that ownership and not loss aversion causes the endowment effect in the standard experimental paradigm.     

The extensibility of the endowment effect to others is mediated by degree of intimacy

Recent studies have suggested that the endowment effect may actually be a type of self‐referent cognitive bias due to the mere ownership of an object. However, it is not adequately understood how the ownership of an object affects the endowment effect. The current research is the first to explore if the endowment effect could be extended to different ownerships. The results suggest that the endowment effect extends to goods owned by their mothers, romantic partners and close friends, but not acquaintances. Furthermore, the level of intimacy between individuals and mothers/romantic partners/close friends/acquaintances mediates the relationship between the effect of ownership and the extensibility of the endowment effect. These findings are consistent with the mere ownership effect that ownership increases valuation by enhancing the salience of the self.     

Beyond mere ownership: transaction demand as a moderator of the endowment effect

Transaction demand refers to the motivation to complete a transaction. As transaction demand increases, owners should sell at lower prices and buyers should buy at higher ones. It was predicted that the endowment effect—the tendency for minimum selling price to exceed maximum buying price for a particular commodity—should be minimized when buyers and sellers have high transaction demand. The results of two experiments supported this hypothesis: In Experiment 1, the endowment effect was observed when participants imagined another individual wanting to buy from or sell to them, but not when they imagined wanting to buy from or sell to another individual. In Experiment 2, a reversal of the endowment effect was observed when transaction demand was high for both prospective buyers and sellers. The findings highlight the importance of motivational factors in addition to other factors (e.g., loss aversion, reference dependence) in determining behavior.     

The relationship between endowment and ownership effects in memory across cultures

An object one owns is typically more highly valued than an equivalent object owned by another person. This endowment effect has been attributed to the aversion of loss of one’s possessions (through selling), or the added value of an item due to self-association (through owning). To date, investigation of these mechanisms has been hampered by the between-subjects methodology traditionally employed to measure endowment. Over two experiments, we report a novel within-subjects method for measuring an endowment bias. In these studies, Western participants showed enhanced valuation of owned items, whereas East-Asian participants did not. This endowment bias also correlated with the ownership effect in memory (a measure of self-referential processing) in Western, but not East-Asian participants. Our results suggest that the endowment effect is partly predicated on the same factors that influence the ownership effect and that this commonality is likely linked to conceptions of ownership specifically, and self-concept more generally.     

The Role of Anticipated Emotions in the Endowment Effect

This research explored the role of anticipated negative feelings in the observed disparity between buying and selling prices for the same endowed object. We assumed that anticipated negative reactions to losses deter people from trading an endowed object and therefore psychological variables that attenuate the emotional response to negative events should further reduce the price disparity between buyers and sellers. In 3 studies, we tested whether factors that either decrease concern about negative feelings (e.g., positive mood, framing of the transaction as involving no action) or increase the anticipated negative reaction to failure to act (e.g., priming errors of omission) further eliminate the disparity between buying and selling prices. These studies provide a novel conceptualization of the endowment bias and, more generally, illustrate the role of anticipated negative feelings in decision making.     

The Seller's Sense: Buying–Selling Perspective Affects the Sensitivity to Expected Value Differences

Previous work comparing pricing decisions by buyers and sellers has primarily focused on the endowment effect, the phenomenon that selling prices exceed buying prices. Here, we examine whether pricing decisions by buyers and sellers also vary in sensitivity to differences between objects' expected values (EVs). Both a loss‐aversion account (which posits that losses are weighted more heavily than gains) and a loss‐attention account (which posits increased attention to a task when it involves possible losses) predict that pricing decisions by sellers should exhibit higher sensitivity. The latter, however, additionally predicts that this pattern should only emerge under certain conditions. In studies 1 and 2, we reanalyzed two published datasets in which participants priced monetary lotteries as sellers or buyers. It emerged that sellers showed greater EV sensitivity (defined as the rank correlation between the set price for each lottery and its EV) except in a condition with an extended deliberation time of 15 seconds. In study 3, the buyer–seller difference in EV sensitivity was replicated even when the pricing task was presented repeatedly, while in study 4, it was eliminated when buying and selling trials were randomly mixed. The reduction of the “seller's sense” in long deliberation and mixed trials settings supports an attentional resource‐based account of the differences between sellers and buyers in their EV sensitivity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Aspects of endowment: a query theory of value construction

How do people judge the monetary value of objects? One clue is provided by the typical endowment study (D. Kahneman, J. L. Knetsch, & R. H. Thaler, 1991), in which participants are randomly given either a good, such as a coffee mug, that they may later sell ("sellers") or a choice between the good and amounts of cash ("choosers"). Sellers typically demand at least twice as much as choosers, inconsistent with economic theory. This result is usually explained by an increased weighting of losses, or loss aversion. The authors provide a memory-based account of endowment, suggesting that people construct values by posing a series of queries whose order differs for sellers and choosers. Because of output interference, these queries retrieve different aspects of the object and the medium of exchange, producing different valuations. The authors show that the content and structure of the recalled aspects differ for selling and choosing and that these aspects predict valuations. Merely altering the order in which queries are posed can eliminate the endowment effect, and changing the order of queries can produce endowment-like effects without ownership.