An examination of methods for producing relaxation during short-term laboratory sessions

Reductions in psychological and physiological correlates of tension produced by various muscle relaxation training techniques were examined during a short-term laboratory session. Two studies are described involving a combined total of one hundred subjects receiving either abbreviated progressive relaxation, visual, auditory, or tactile electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback procedures. The Anxiety Differential was administered before and after the laboratory session. Heart rate, respiratory rate, skin conductance, systolic blood pressure, and frontalis and dominant forearm extensor EMG measures were obtained before, during, and after administration of relaxation training. Results indicated feedback in the tactile modality to produce overall reductions in tension comparable to those produced by progressive relaxation. Overall reductions in tension displayed by both progressive relaxation and tactile feedback were generally greater than reductions shown by visual or auditory feedback procedures. Interpretations suggest that certain forms of EMG feedback may offer an alternative to progressive relaxation techniques for producing short-term reductions in tension. Feedback modality is further indicated as a potentially important variable during relaxation training using the EMG feedback technique.     

Comparative effectiveness of patterned biofeedback vs meditation training on EMG and skin temperature changes

This study examined whether a low arousal, relaxation pattern of frontalis EMG decreases and peripheral skin temperature increases could be attained more effectively through biofeedback or meditation training. Thirty female subjects, ranging in age from 21 to 59, were randomly assigned to one of three groups: patterned biofeedback, clinically standardized meditation or control. Prior to training, subjects were administered the EPI. Each subject was seen weekly for seven sessions. Subjective experiences and time spent practising at home were also recorded. Repeated measures ANCOVA's performed on the EMG and skin temperature means indicated that the meditation group showed significantly lower EMG levels at the end of treatment than the control group. No group had significant temperature increases nor were there any significant differences in practice time. The biofeedback group had difficulty in patterning the two feedback signals simultaneously. Extraverts in the control group had the highest EMG levels. The most positive subjective reports came from subjects in the meditation group. Meditation offers a viable alternative as a relaxation procedure, requiring little time to learn and devoid of any performance criteria levels.     

Psychophysiological and cognitive responses to stressful stimuli in subjects practicing progressive relaxation and clinically standardized meditation

Thirty-six volunteer subjects were assigned to one of three conditions: progressive relaxation, clinically standardized meditation, or a waiting list control group asked to relax daily (without specific instruction). Subjects were given paper and pencil tests two times, separated by 5 weeks during which time the two treatment groups received 4 weekly sessions of group training. All subjects were tested in the psychophysiology laboratory at the end of the 5-week period, during which time they were exposed to 5 very loud tones. While relaxing as deeply as possible using the techniques they had learned and anticipating the loud tones, the meditation group exhibited higher heart rates and higher integrated frontalis EMG activity, but they also showed greater cardiac decelerations following each tone, more frontal alpha, and fewer symptoms of cognitive anxiety than the other two groups. The relaxation group reported more sensations of muscular relaxation than the other groups, but also some symptoms of hyperventilation. The results are generally consistent with Davidson and Schwartz's (1976) categorization of meditation as a ‘cognitive’ technique, and suggest that frontal EEG alpha may be a physiological marker for the absence of cognitive anxiety. Physiological findings also support Goleman and Schwartz's (1976) suggestion that meditation prepares people to cope with stress.     

Initial relaxation response: contrasts between clinical patients and normal volunteers

The effectiveness of EMG biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, and self-relaxation were compared using a within-subjects design. Thirteen clinical subjects and 48 normal volunteers participated in 4 counterbalanced relaxation sessions using one of the techniques. Frontalis EMG and surface skin temperature were monitored throughout the sessions. For reducing EMG, biofeedback was more effective than the other three techniques. A significant interaction of treatment X subjects was found for changes in skin temperature. Clinical subjects had the greatest increase in skin temperature with EMG biofeedback and analog subjects responded best to self-relaxation. There were no significant differences in initial measures of EMG or skin temperature for the two samples.     

Physiologic and self-report comparisons between tension headache sufferers and nonheadache controls

Tension headache sufferers and nonheadache controls were compared with respect to (1) frontal EMG during both baseline and presentation of an imagined stressor, (2) trait anxiety, (3) locus of control expectancies for health related behaviors, and (4) exposure to stressful life events. Tension headache sufferers displayed higher resting muscle tension levels than did nonheadache controls. However, both groups responded similarly to the imagined stress stimulus and displayed significant muscle tension elevations of similar magnitude. While tension headache sufferers reported higher levels of trait anxiety, no differences were found between the two groups for locus of control expectancies and exposure to stressful life events. The diagnostic and treatment implications of these findings are discussed.     

Effects of progressive relaxation and meditation on cognitive and somatic manifestations of daily stress

Meditation and progressive relaxation were compared with a self-monitoring control as treatments for symptoms of stress. Subjects were recruited from advertisements in local newspapers and received five sessions of training. All subjects self-monitored stress symptoms throughout the study and had their behavior rated weekly by a spouse/roommate. The progressive relaxation and meditation treatments resulted in a significant reduction of stress symptomatology over time. Little evidence was generated for differential effects of treatments.     

How to relax and how not to relax: A re-evaluation of the work of Edmund Jacobson—I

Jacobson's method of progressive relaxation is contrasted with modified techniques that emphasize suggestion, brevity and the feeling of large contrasts between tension and relaxation. The experimental literature is reviewed, and suggests that the modifications may have been premature. The psychophysiological effects of suggestion are weaker than those of progressive relaxation. Tape-recorded instruction appears to be completely ineffective as a method for teaching relaxation as a skill that can be used across situations. Live training contributes more than simple feedback to Ss. Its effectiveness may lie in individualized adaptation of training technique. EMG biofeedback makes taped training more-effective, but contributes nothing to intensive live training. Despite its greater length, Jacobson's original technique is preferred to the modified techniques, particularly for cases where psychophysiological effects are important. Length of training does not, by itself, appear to be a critical factor.     

The effects of instructional set on physiological response to stressful imagery

Centrally mediated or cognitive variables have received considerable attention in clinical research. With the establishment of the effectiveness of such specific treatment techniques as systematic desensitization (Paul. 1969a. 1969b). a question arises as to the influence of cognitions on process and outcome variables in such learning based treatments (Lang. 1971). Research investigating the influence of demand characteristics and subject expectancies has demonstrated such centrally mediated variables can significantly influence overt, behavioral and self-report measures of fear, stress, or anxiety (cf. Borkovec. 1972: Marcia. Rubin and Efran. 1969; McGlynn. Maelia and Nawas. 1969: McGlynn. Reynolds and Linder. 1971: Oliveau. Agras. Leitenberg and Wright. 1969; Rappaport. 1972: Rosen. 1974).However. Borkovec (1972) and Rappaport (1972) failed to obtain expectancy effects on physiological measures of anxiety. Neither investigation provided for an independent assessment of subjects' actual expectancies, or belief in the instructions, as recommended by Davison and Wilson (1973). Borkovec administered clinical procedures over four sessions and varied the information communicated about the ‘purpose’ of the treatments (physiological versus therapeutic instructions). Differential rationales for differential expectancies of physiological reactivity were not provided. After each session, subjects reviewed the same false physiological records depicting reductions in fear responses. Although these changes were explained either physiologically or therapeutically. the fact that such reductions were emphasized should have attenuated differences between groups. Rappaport (1972) exposed subjects to a fearful stimulus and varied the suggestion and rationale for the pseudotreatment: no expectancy (stress research): therapeutic expectancy (fear reduction); and negative expectancy (fear increase). The lack of an independent assessment of the expectancy manipulation, as well as the exclusion of a specific therapeutic procedure, make it impossible to interpret the results in relation to expectancy effects on physiological fear responses during the administration of therapeutic procedures. There is other evidence, however, that suggestion and instructional set can significantly influence somatic and autonomic response systems (Barber. 1961. 1965; Sternbach. 1964. 1965).The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of instructional set on physiological responses to stressful imagery. This was an early step in a research program investigating the effects of instructional and informational variables on physiological responses of clinical interest. One half of the subjects received abbreviated live relaxation training (R) as described m a manual by Bernstein and Borkovec (1972) and based upon the original work of Jacobson (1938). The other half received an inert placebo pill and undertook a target detection task (P). The latter procedure was similar to that used by Paul (1966). Although both procedures had previously been shown to have relaxing effects, the P task was included as an additional control for any potential effects specific to the tension-release procedure of R. In order to evaluate the effects of instructional set, one half of each of the above two groups received instructions designed to lead to an expectancy of response inhibition to stressful imagery by the respective procedure (Decrease Stress Response. DSR). while the other half received instructions designed to lead to an expectancy of an increased response to stressful imagery by the respective procedure (Increase Stress Response. ISR). Each subject visualized three individually specified items that were the most frightening scenes imaginable prior to training and four times after training visualized the scene producing the largest response. Considerable effort was devoted to eliciting from each subject the most frightening items possible for her. and it was clear from subject comments that the items did elicit negative emotional responses.Since previous research (Barber. 1961. 1965; Sternbach. 1964. 1965) indicated that instructional set can influence physiological reactivity, it was hypothesized the DSR) subjects should exhibit a greater reduction in emotional response from pre- to posttraining than ISR subjects.     

The effects of short term flotation REST on relaxation: a controlled study

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of restricted environmental stimulation using a flotation tank (Flotation REST) to the effects of a normal sensory environment on relaxation. All of the subjects were first introduced to a simple relaxation program to be used during the experimental sessions. The program consisted of guided point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques. Subjects were then pre-tested on measurements of electromyogram (EMG), galvanic skin response (GSR), peripheral skin temperature, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The experimental group experienced ten 45-minute sessions practicing the relaxation program in a Flotation REST environment. The control subjects practiced the same relaxation program in a similar body position for 45 minutes in a normal sensory environment. All subjects answered a five-question Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire on trials five through ten and were then post-tested on EMG, GSR, skin temperature, and blood pressure. The results indicated significant differences between groups from pre-test to post-test on systolic and diastolic blood pressure; the experimental group showed greater reductions. Significant differences also were observed on three of five questions on the Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire; the experimental group reported greater subjective relaxation and trends in a similar direction on the remaining two questions. The results of this study indicate that flotation REST enhances point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques and, when combined with these techniques, can be an effective means of teaching normal subjects to lower systolic and diastolic pressure and heighten their subjective perception of relaxation.     

Differential effects of mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving-kindness meditation on decentering and negative reactions to repetitive thoughts

Decentering has been proposed as a potential mechanism of mindfulness-based interventions but has received limited empirical examination to date in experimental studies comparing mindfulness meditation to active comparison conditions. In the present study, we compared the immediate effects of mindful breathing (MB) to two alternative stress-management techniques: progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and loving-kindness meditation (LKM) to test whether decentering is unique to mindfulness meditation or common across approaches. Novice meditators (190 female undergraduates) were randomly assigned to complete one of three 15-min stress-management exercises (MB, PMR, or LKM) presented by audio recording. Immediately after the exercise, participants completed measures of decentering, frequency of repetitive thoughts during the exercise, and degree of negative reaction to thoughts. As predicted, participants in the MB condition reported greater decentering relative to the other two conditions. The association between frequency of repetitive thought and negative reactions to thoughts was relatively weaker in the MB condition than in the PMR and LKM conditions, in which these two variables were strongly and positively correlated. Consistent with the construct of decentering, the relative independence between these two variables in the MB condition suggests that mindful breathing may help to reduce reactivity to repetitive thoughts. Taken together, results help to provide further evidence of decentering as a potential mechanism that distinguishes mindfulness practice from other credible stress-management approaches.     

Relationships between Teachers' Occupational Stress and Their Burnout and Distress: Roles of Coping and Negative Mood Regulation Expectancies

Teaching school is a highly stressful occupation. Consequences of this stress are burnout, physical and emotional distress, and choosing to leave the profession. Research on teacher stress and burnout has largely focused on environmental and contextual factors while ignoring personality characteristics of teachers that may have an impact on relationships between job stress and its consequences. The current study has a cross-sectional self-report design, focusing on teachers' negative mood regulation (NMR) expectancies as predictors of their coping, burnout and distress, in response to occupational stress. NMR expectancies are people's beliefs that they can control the negative moods they experience. Participants were 86 primary and secondary school teachers, who filled out questionnaire measures of teacher stress, NMR expectancies, coping, burnout, and distress. Simultaneous regression analyses showed that higher stress on the job did indeed predict greater burnout and distress. Additionally, stronger NMR expectancies predicted more active coping. NMR expectancies also predicted less burnout and distress, independent of stress level and coping. Believing one could control one's negative moods was associated with more adaptive outcomes for teachers. Results argue for the value of examining individual difference variables in research on occupational stress, in particular negative mood regulation expectancies.     

Evaluation of meditation and relaxation on physiological response during the performance of fine motor and gross motor tasks

This study investigated the effects of meditation/relaxation on physiological responses during the performance of a fine motor and a gross motor task. A pretest-posttest control group, randomized-blocks design was used to study a group of 16 meditators and a group of 16 nonmeditators, subgroups of each who relaxed prior to performing on a pursuit-rotor tracking device as a fine motor task and to performing the Luft cycle ergometer protocol to a heart rate of 70% of age-adjusted maximum heart rate as a gross motor task. During each of these tasks heart rate, systolic blood pressure, rate-pressure-product, and EMG activity of the frontalis muscle were monitored. No significant difference in the performance of either the fine motor or the gross motor task was noted for persons practicing meditation and persons who were nonmeditators but were given the opportunity to relax prior to a motor task. Likewise, no significant difference was noted in the pattern of response to the imposed fine motor or gross motor task by meditators or relaxed nonmeditators.     

The importance of home practice for progressive relaxation training

The efficacy of home practice assignments was evaluated as a component of standardized progressive relaxation training. Subjects reporting general anxiety and tension problems were assigned to either a home practice relaxation, no home practice relaxation or wait-list control condition. Treatment was conducted for 10 sessions over a 5-week period. In addition, subjects in both conditions engaged in in-vivo application of their relaxation skills during a final 2-week application period. Group comparisons showed that both progressive relaxation conditions significantly improved on daily self-monitored general anxiety and tension levels relative to the wait-list control condition. Group analyses of percent subject improvements supported the effectiveness of home practice assignments, especially during the application period. No systematic differences between groups, on physiological and self-report variables, were found during several laboratory relaxation evaluation sessions. This study supports the contribution of home practice assignments to progressive relaxation training.     

Stress and alcohol use: a daily process examination of the stressor-vulnerability model

The authors used a daily diary methodology to examine over 60 days how the within-person associations among event stress, alcohol consumption, and desire to drink varied as a function of gender, positive and negative alcohol-outcome expectancies, and avoidant coping in a sample of 88 regular drinkers. Multilevel regression analyses indicated that men who more strongly anticipated positive outcomes or a sense of carelessness from drinking drank relatively more on stressful days compared with low-stress days. Similar results were found predicting desire to drink. Men who anticipated greater impairment from drinking drank relatively less on stressful days. In general, these effects did not hold for women. Little evidence was found for the predicted effects for avoidant coping style, and some results showed that avoidant coping style buffered the exacerbating effects of careless unconcern expectancies.     

Temperature self-regulation and relaxation with migraine patients and normals

Ten migraine headache subjects and 10 non-migraine subjects were divided equally into two groups: a progressive relaxation group and a finger temperature biofeedback group. Finger temperature, temporal artery pulse amplitude and forehead blood flow were monitored for all subjects during two baseline and six treatment sessions.

The biofeedback group achieved greater (albeit low magnitude) increases in finger temperature than the relaxation group, but no improvement in headache activity was obtained. However the relaxation group improved significantly in terms of headache intensity.

There was no significant difference in the ability to achieve finger temperature control, nor in stability point temperatures, between the migraine and non-migraine subjects.

No systematic relationship was found between finger temperature, forehead blood volume and temporal artery pulse amplitude. Possible mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of finger temperature training are examined in the light of these results.     

An Empirical Analysis of Fraternity and Sorority Individual-Environmental Interactions With Alcohol

Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze fraternity and sorority individual-environmental interactions for 3,756 Greek undergraduate students at a large public university. Alcohol expectancies were measured with items used to assess the degree to which people believe alcohol has positive effects. For sorority students, expectancies were negatively related to chapter culture emphasizing service and civic responsibility. Expectancies were positively associated with chapter culture emphasizing glorification of alcohol use in both fraternity and sorority chapters. Among sorority students, consumption was predicted by group-level service orientation, holding expectancies constant. The strength of the relationship between alcohol expectancies and consumption level increased among fraternity and sorority members, according to chapters' progressive exaltation of the role of alcohol. The implications of the findings are discussed for observed gender differences, the role of self-selection into these unique student organizations, and current efforts to recalibrate Greek chapters toward greater personal safety and control.     

Physiological changes after biofeedback and relaxation training for multiple-pain tension-headache patients

This paper is concerned with the psychophysiology of "muscle-contraction" headaches in a group of Compensation patients suffering from multiple pain problems in addition to headaches. A total of 55 of these patients were divided into 4 groups which received frontalis EMG biofeedback, relaxation training, combined biofeedback-relaxation training, or no treatment. Differences were observed among the 3 experimental treatments and the control group with respect to headache changes, but there were no differences among groups with respect to the changes observed in four underlying physiological responses as a function of time or practice. While the subjects who showed the largest changes in headache characteristics were those who exhibited the largest decreases in frontalis EMG, these were also the subjects whose initial frontalis EMG levels were the highest. It is concluded that, in keeping with a growing literature, the link between frontalis EMG and "muscle-contraction" headaches is a tenuous one and that the changes brought about in headache symptomatology through biofeedback or relaxation training are most likely attributable to a generalization of feelings of mastery over the environment or of self-efficacy brought about in the subjects through apparent success at the task.     

Meditation,personality and arousal

A questionnaire survey of people who had learned a technique of meditation was carried out to assess persistence with practice, perceived effects of meditation practice and subjective experiences during meditation. The results suggested that a significant proportion give up meditating (42.9%) and that the subjective experience of meditation was similar to that of the hypnagogic state. Reported effects of meditation were generally physiological and psychological benefits related to relaxation.A personality questionnaire was also distributed and the results suggested that those attracted to meditation are significantly more neurotic and introverted than the general population but that those who continue with meditation are significantly less neurotic than those who give up their practice.These findings are discussed in terms of regression effects and in relation to a theory of personality and arousal.     

A neurocognitive model of meditation based on activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis

Meditation comprises a series of practices mainly developed in eastern cultures aiming at controlling emotions and enhancing attentional processes. Several authors proposed to divide meditation techniques in focused attention (FA) and open monitoring (OM) techniques. Previous studies have reported differences in brain networks underlying FA and OM. On the other hand common activations across different meditative practices have been reported. Despite differences between forms of meditation and their underlying cognitive processes, we propose that all meditative techniques could share a central process that would be supported by a core network for meditation since their general common goal is to induce relaxation, regulating attention and developing an attitude of detachment from one's own thoughts. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a quantitative meta-analysis based on activation likelihood estimation (ALE) of 10 neuroimaging studies (91 subjects) on different meditative techniques to evidence the core cortical network subserving meditation. We showed activation of basal ganglia (caudate body), limbic system (enthorinal cortex) and medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). We discuss the functional role of these structures in meditation and we tentatively propose a neurocognitive model of meditation that could guide future research.     

EMG biofeedback training, relaxation training, and placebo for the relief of chronic back pain

24 patients with chronic low back pain were randomly assigned to three treatment conditions: EMG biofeedback, relaxation training, and a placebo condition. Patients were seen for eight sessions and were evaluated before Session 1 and after Session 8. Eight analyses of covariance which were adjusted for age and pretest scores were computed on the final scores to find which variables could detect significant difference between treatments. Age was included as a covariate because the differences in age between conditions were significant. Four variables with significant and nearly significant differences were chosen for analysis. The second set of analyses identified the nature of the differences among the three conditions. These included a priori planned comparisons among conditions, and paired t tests. Relaxation-trained subjects were significantly superior to subjects in the placebo condition, in decreasing pain during the function test, increasing relaxation, and decreasing Upper Trapezius EMG. They were superior to EMG Biofeedback training in increasing reported activity. Both Relaxation and EMG trained subjects were able to reduce Upper Trapezius EMG by Session 8. Relaxation-trained subjects showed significant change on eight of the 14 possible comparisons for each treatment condition. EMG biofeedback training showed significant favorable results in only one condition; the placebo condition showed no significant results. Relaxation training gave better results in reducing EMG and pain, and in increasing relaxation and activity than either EMG biofeedback alone or a placebo condition.