Depressed and nondepressed students: differences in interpersonal perceptions

The purpose of this research was to study the patterns of interpersonal behavior of depressed students. Depressed participants rated themselves lower than non-depressed controls on assertiveness and initiation of interactions and significantly higher than controls on concern about what others think, introversion, and submissiveness. Depressed participants also scored significantly higher than controls on measures of dependency, self-criticism, and the need to please others. Ratings of depressed participants by their roommates were not correlated with depressed participants' self-reports. In contrast, most subscale self-ratings and roommate ratings for the nondepressed participants and their roommates were significantly correlated.     

Attributional processing style differences in depressed and nondepressed individuals

A series of four studies used different measures to assess the amount of attributional processing following failure and success. It was found that, from an actor's point of view, relatively depressed students consistently differed from relatively nondepressed students in the amount of their attributional processing. The depressed individuals reported more attributions for both hypothetical and real failure, compared to the nondepressed individuals. They also reported fewer attributions for hypothetical success than the nondepressed individuals. In line with previous findings, depressed individuals took less personal credit for their successes and ascribed their failures more pronouncedly to their lack of ability. The findings reflect a depressive attributional processing style that encompasses individual differences, both in the content and in the amount of causal thinking following failure and success. Integration of this style into the attributional helplessness model of depression is suggested. The findings are compatible with a differential self-esteem view of depression and with aspects of Kuhl's functional helplessness model of depression. Implications for depression therapy are briefly discussed.Financial support for the studies was obtained from the University of Bielefeld (Grants 0Z 2760/2774). I wish to thank Karola Bettmer, Thomas Feld, and Stefan Wächter for their participation in the collection and the preparation of the data, as well as Friedrich Försterling, Jonathan Harrow, Wulf-Uwe Meyer, and two unknown reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.     

Relation of level of exercise, age, and weight-cycling history to weight and eating concerns in male and female runners.

We examined the association between level of exercise and degree of weight preoccupation in a large sample of male and female runners, as well as risk factors posited to influence weight and eating concerns in the general population. Subjects were 2,459 males and 1,786 females who had completed a questionnaire on weight and eating concerns in a national running magazine. Eight percent of the males and 24% of the females had symptomatic scores on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT). Exercise level, defined as weekly running mileage, was positively associated with excessive weight and eating concerns in males but not in females. Both sexes with a history of weight cycling were more likely to have symptomatic EAT scores than those with no such history. These results highlight the importance of studying these concerns in males as well as females and of examining the role of exercise level and weight-cycling history in the development of serious weight preoccupations.     

Body image and tobacco cessation: relationships with weight concerns and intention to resume tobacco use

Concern about weight gain after tobacco cessation is a potential barrier to quitting tobacco. Few studies, however, have examined the role of body image in cessation-related weight concerns and anticipated relapse. This study investigated relationships between current body image dissatisfaction, anticipated body image dissatisfaction (discrepancy between anticipated post-cessation body shape and desired body shape), cessation-related weight concerns, and intention to resume tobacco with weight gain. Body image dissatisfaction was significantly related to cessation-related weight concerns. Participants who reported current dissatisfaction with their body image were 2.6 times more likely to intend to resume tobacco use with cessation-related weight gain than those with no body image dissatisfaction. Individuals with anticipated body image dissatisfaction were 3.4 times more likely to intend to resume tobacco compared to individuals with no anticipated body image dissatisfaction. Women and normal weight individuals with anticipated body image dissatisfaction appear to be at particularly high risk for intending to relapse. Results suggest that tobacco cessation interventions may need to target concerns about body image as well as weight gain.     

Ethnic differences in BMI, weight concerns, and eating behaviors: comparison of Native American, White, and Hispanic adolescents

Evidence suggests that substantial proportions of adolescents, regardless of ethnicity or gender, are engaged in excessive weight control behaviors. Crago and Shisslak (2003), however, have noted that small samples and poorly validated instruments have limited the value of previous ethnic difference studies. Using the McKnight Risk Factor Survey, we compared Native American, White, and Hispanic adolescents. Native students were divided into groups with one (NA-mixed) or two (NA) Native American biological parents. Surveys were completed by 5th through 10th grade students. BMI z-scores were significantly higher for boys and girls in the NA group, and boys in this group were significantly more engaged in weight control behaviors, including purging. A higher percentage of Native and Hispanic girls preferred a larger body size. BMI was positively correlated with weight and shape concerns and with weight control behaviors, regardless of ethnicity or gender. Overweight among Native adolescents may put them at greater risk for eating problems than their White peers.     

Personality, coping, and coping effectiveness in an adult sample

Two studies of coping among community-dwelling adults (N= 255,151) were used to examine the influence of personality on coping responses, the perceived effectiveness of coping mechanisms, and the effects of coping and personality on well-being In both studies a wide range of potential stressors was examined, categorized as losses, threats, or challenges The personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience, as measured by both self-reports and spouse- and peer-ratings, were systematically related to coping mechanisms in both studies There was general agreement across types of stressors on the use and perceived effectiveness of the 27 coping mechanisms, and individuals who used more effective ways of coping generally reported higher subsequent happiness and life satisfaction However, personality variables are also known to be determinants of well-being, and the associations between coping and well-being were reduced when personality measures were partialled out Some implications for the design and interpretation of coping effectiveness studies are discussed     

Affect and the weight of idealistic versus pragmatic concerns in decision situations

Individuals consider abstract values and principles important aspects of their identities. Nonetheless, they often make judgments and decisions that contradict these values and principles for the sake of pragmatic benefits. Assuming that the process of weighting idealistic and pragmatic concerns is context sensitive, the present research argues that affect influences the relative weight of idealistic versus pragmatic concerns in decision situations owing to its influence on the level of abstraction at which individuals represent situations mentally. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate that more positive affect increases the prominent weighting of idealistic over pragmatic concerns while less positive affect leads to less differentiation between the relevance of idealistic and pragmatic concerns. Studies 3 and 4 test the assumption that affective influences on mental abstraction are crucial for affect‐dependent shifts in the weighting of idealistic and pragmatic concerns. By bringing together theorizing on affect and cognition with recent theorizing on the role of mental abstraction for decision processes, this article highlights a mechanism through which decisions can be influenced by feelings that goes beyond the mechanisms that have typically been discussed in the affect and cognition literature so far.     

Individual differences in the perception of bodily sensations: The role of trait anxiety and coping style

Thirty young women participated in an experiment in which heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, skin conductance level and palmar sweat index were monitored at rest and during the administration of mental arithmetic, mirror drawing and cold pressor tasks. The accuracy of perception of somatic states was estimated by calculating within-subject correlations between four bodily sensations (racing heart, high blood pressure, shortness of breath and sweaty hands) and corresponding physiological parameters, assessed on eight occasions during the experiment. The accuracy of heart rate perception was highest, with a mean correlation between actual heart rate and ratings of racing heart of 0.76 and 66% of participants showing significant within-subject effects. The mean accuracy was 0.55 for systolic blood pressure, 0.48 for respiration rate, 0.47 for skin conductance level, and 0.64 for palmar sweat index. Accurate perception across physiological parameters did not cluster within individuals, and was not dependent on the range either of physiological changes or sensation ratings. Trait anxiety was not significantly associated with accuracy of somatic perception. Subjects with high trait anxiety reported larger increases in shortness of breath during tasks than did low anxious subjects, but this was not reflected in objective physiological measures. Information-seeking coping style, indexed by the monitoring scale of the Miller Behavioral Style Scale, was related to the accuracy of perception of skin conductance level and heart rate. The use of within-subject correlational strategies for assessing individual differences in perception of bodily states is discussed.     

Explanatory style differences in health literacy: a survey among young adults in Taiwan

Explanatory styles are related to individuals’ positive health management. Everyone interprets and thinks about issues differently; therefore, medical information is understood in different ways. This study explored the relationship of optimistic and positive views on health literacy. A survey method was used to collect information from 342 university students. This study used PLS2.0 and SPSS 18.0 for data analysis. The results indicated that optimists had more accurate self-reported health status and medication-taking and nutritional knowledge than pessimists did. Females had higher scores on health knowledge and medication-taking and nutritional knowledge than males. In addition, female optimists had better performance on self-reported health status and health and medication-taking knowledge than female pessimists did. The major contribution of this study is the confirmation of the effect of explanatory style on health literacy.     

Stress,coping, executive function,and brain activation in adolescent offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers

This study examined the associations among chronic stress, activation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), executive function, and coping with stress in at-risk and a comparison sample of adolescents. Adolescents (N = 16; age 12–15) of mothers with (n = 8) and without (n = 8) a history of depression completed questionnaires, neurocognitive testing, and functional neuroimaging in response to a working memory task (N-back). Children of depressed mothers demonstrated less activation in the anterior PFC (APFC) and both greater and less activation than controls in distinct areas within the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in response to the N-back task. Across both groups, activation of the dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC; Brodmann area [BA9]) and APFC (BA10) was positively correlated with greater exposure to stress and negatively correlated with secondary control coping. Similarly, activation of the dACC (BA32) was negatively correlated with secondary control coping. Regression analyses revealed that DLPFC, dACC, and APFC activation were significant predictors of adolescents’ reports of their use of secondary control coping and accounted for the effects of stress exposure on adolescents’ coping. This study provides evidence that chronic stress may impact coping through its effects on the brain regions responsible for executive functions foundational to adaptive coping skills.     

Individual differences in self-reinforcement style and performance in self-and therapist-controlled weight reduction programs

Thirty-seven overweight subjects were recruited from the staff of a V. A. Hospital for a weight reduction program. A self-reinforcement (SR) test was administered prior to treatment and subjects were classified as high or low self-reinforcers. Subjects were then exposed to one of two behavioral weight-reduction programs or a minimal treatment control condition. One treatment program emphasized self-control (SC) and the other incorporated a therapist controlled financial contingency for weight loss (EC). A significant interaction was found between SR group and treatment condition. High SR subjects lost weight at the rate of 1.49 pounds per week in the SC condition and only 0.37 pounds per week in EC. Low SR subjects lost at the rate of 1.06 and 1.01 pounds per week respectively in SC and EC. Implications for treatment and future research were discussed. The financial contingency had either neutral or negative effects. Caution was advised for any future use of that procedure.     

Risky behavior in young adult pedestrians: Personality determinants,correlates with risk perception,and gender differences

Based on the risk homeostasis theory, the aim of this study was to assess acceptable risk, measured by personality factors, and risk perception, measured by physiological arousal, as predictors of risky behavior in young adult pedestrians, as well as to assess for gender differences. Eighty-two young adults, aged 18–30, completed self-report measures about risky pedestrian behaviors and these personality traits: impulsiveness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. Sixty-four of these participants then took part in an experimental task designed to assess their perception of the level of risk in situations involving different interactions between cars and pedestrians. Risk perception was assessed by these physiological responses: heart rate, skin conductance level, and skin conductance response. Results showed that risky behavior had significant correlations with impulsiveness, conscientiousness, and skin conductance level. Gender differences also emerged in risky behavior, impulsiveness, conscientiousness, and skin conductance level. Finally, a structural equation model showed that impulsiveness, conscientiousness and the difference in skin conductance level between risky and neutral situations predicted risky pedestrian behaviors, and explained 23.6% of the its variance, after controlling the effect of gender. Implications for evaluation, prevention, and intervention for risky pedestrian behaviors are discussed.     

Distress, coping, and blogging: comparing new myspace users by their intention to blog.

New Myspace.com users (N = 134, mean age 24.5 years) completed a questionnaire about their intent to blog and several psychosocial variables. Intending bloggers scored higher on psychological distress, self-blame, and venting and scored lower on social integration and satisfaction with number of online and face-to-face friends. Intending bloggers may view this activity as a potential mechanism for coping with distress in situations in which they feel inadequately linked with social supports.     

Emotional approach coping: Gender differences on psychological adjustment in young to middle-aged cancer survivors

Objective : The effect of emotional approach coping (EAC) varies by gender. However, this gender difference has not yet been investigated in cancer survivors. We investigated whether the effects of two kinds of EAC – emotional processing (EP) and emotional expression (EE) – vary by gender and whether EAC has effects above and beyond the effect of other coping strategies.

Design : EAC and other coping strategies were assessed at baseline in a sample of 248 young to middle-aged adult (between the age of 22 and 55) cancer survivors. One hundred and sixty-six survivors responded to psychological adjustment one year later.

Results : EAC had different relationships with Time 2 adjustment in men and women. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that for men, EE predicted lower intrusive thoughts and, for women, EP was associated with higher positive affect when other coping strategies and EE were controlled.

Conclusion : Gender differences held true in cancer survivors, and EAC was effective when other coping strategies were controlled. Further, EE was effective in reducing negative adjustment in men while EP was helpful in promoting positive adjustment in women.     

Comparison of delay discounting of different outcomes in cigarette smokers,smokeless tobacco users,e-cigarette users,and non-tobacco users

Delay discounting is the process by which a commodity loses value as the delay to its receipt increases. Rapid discounting predicts various maladaptive behaviors including tobacco use. Typically, delay discounting of different outcomes has been compared between cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. To better understand the relationship of delay discounting to different modes of tobacco use, we examined the differences in delay discounting of different outcomes between cigarette smokers, smokeless tobacco users, e-cigarette users, and non-tobacco users. In the present study, all participants completed 8 titrating delay-discounting tasks: $100 gain, $500 gain, $500 loss, alcohol, entertainment, food, a temporary health gain, and a temporary cure from a disease. Non-tobacco users discounted most outcomes less than tobacco users overall; however, there were no differences in discounting among the different types of tobacco users. These results suggest that nicotine consumption of any kind is associated with a higher degree of impulsivity compared to non-tobacco users. Adoption of tobacco products that have been perceived as less harmful (e.g., e-cigarettes) is not associated with a baseline difference or decrease in delay discounting if adopted after a history of cigarette use.     

Cognitive,affective and social mechanisms in depression risk: Cognition,hostility, and coping style

Although some research has assessed cognitive variables in individuals at risk for depression, few studies have specifically assessed the role of automatic thinking, and virtually no studies have assessed anger and coping in this group. The current study compared measures of these variables in a high-risk group that was defined on the basis of a previous episode of depression, and a control group comprised of low-risk/never depressed individuals. Even though neither group evidenced depressive symptoms at the time of assessment, group comparisons and regression analyses indicated that high-risk individuals reported more negative automatic thoughts than did low-risk participants and that social support seeking, self-blame, and avoidance emerged as coping predictors of risk as did higher levels of anger and hostility. These data thus suggest patterns of interpersonal, behavioural, and cognitive variables that may characterise depression risk.     

Developmental differences in depression: cognitive-perceptual distortion in adolescent versus adult female depressives

This study was undertaken to determine differential cognitive-perceptual distortion in depression for adolescent versus adult females. Twenty-five female adolescent and twenty-five female adult psychiatric inpatients served as subjects. Each had received a primary diagnosis of neurotic or reactive depression and had completed the Beck Depression Inventory within five days of hospitalization. Results indicated significant similarities between the groups in anger at self and sense of failure. These may serve as unifying themes for adolescent and adult depressives. Results also indicated significant differences between the two groups. Adult female depressives demonstrated an internalized, ruminative focus to their depressive cognitions. Adolescent female depressives demonstrated an externalized focus to their depressive cognitions. Adults demonstrated a preoccupation with their own view of themselves and perceived themselves as a failure in their own eyes. Adolescents demonstrated a preoccupation with how others view them and perceived themselves as a failure in the eyes of others. These results are discussed in terms of developmental, theoretical, and treatment issues for adolescent versus adult depressives generally. Depression may exacerbate cognitive-perceptual distortions already existing within the adolescent population. In treatment, group psychotherapy may prove particularly efficacious for adolescent depressives.     

Adoption,attachment, and relationship concerns: A study of adult adoptees

We examined the impact of adoptive status and family experiences on adult attachment security and how attachment predicts relationship outcomes. Adults adopted as infants (N = 144) and a sample of nonadoptees (N = 131) completed measures of attachment security at recruitment and 6 months later; other measures assessed parental bonding and adoptees’ reunion experiences (Time 1), and relationship variables (e.g., loneliness, relationship quality; Time 2). Insecurity was higher for adoptees and those reporting negative childhood relationships with parents. For adoptees only, recent relationship difficulties also predicted insecurity. Attachment dimensions were more important than adoptive status in predicting relationship variables and mediated the effects of adoptive status. The results support the utility of attachment theory in understanding adoptees’ relationship concerns.     

Direct and indirect measures of contextual information: Older versus young adult subjects

Abstract

Several reports in the literature suggest that older adults have impaired memory for contextual information. Support for this approach was derived from studies that tested different aspects of contextual information by direct measures of memory (i.e., recall or recognition). the purpose of the present study is twofold: first, to test the possibility that contextual information, although inaccessible via direct measures, may be evident via indirect measures of memory; and second, to evaluate the contribution of duration of exposure to direct and indirect memory measures of contextual information. Two groups of subjects participated in the present study, 35 younger and 30 older subjects. Duration of exposure was not found to have a differential effect on the groups, in either direct or indirect memory tasks. As predicted, age-related differences emerged when direct, but not indirect, measures of contextual memory were tested. These findings argue against the context-memory deficit hypothesis in elderly sbjects, and are interpreted in terms of the theoretical distinction between implicit and explicit memory, where the former is found to be preserved in older adult subjects.