Amount and type of physical activity as predictors of growth in executive functions,attentional control,and social self-control across 4 years of elementary school

This paper used a nationally representative sample of children from the United States to examine the extent to which physical activity and sports participation may promote growth in children's executive functions (EFs), attention, and social self-control over time. Using data from the ECLS-K:2011 (N = 18,174), findings indicated that regular physical activity predicted growth in EFs and attention from 3rd to 4th grade (βs = 0.03–0.05) but not from kindergarten to 1st grade. After controlling for the frequency of physical activity, participation in group sports predicted increases in EFs, attention, and social self-control during both periods (βs = 0.02–0.04). Though modest in size, the findings suggest that encouraging children to engage in more frequent and more team-based activity will benefit the development of their EFs and related skills, and especially so for children in middle childhood.     

The mediational role of executive functions for the relationship between motor ability and academic performance in pediatric cancer survivors

IntroductionPediatric Cancer Survivors (PCS) bear a high risk for late effects within motor abilities (MAs) and executive functions (EFs). In typically developing children, these domains are interrelated and predictors of academic performance. The current study investigated (i) whether MAs and EFs are also interrelated in PCS, and (ii) whether EFs mediate the relation between MAs and academic performance.Methods78 PCS (7–16 years; M = 11.23; SD = 2.49) participated in this study. Three MAs were assessed: coordination and strength (using the German Motor Test) and endurance (using a cycle ergometer test). EFs were assessed: inhibition and cognitive flexibility (Color-Word Interference Test) and working memory (Block Recall test); and academic performance by questionnaire asking for children’s grade point average.ResultsPearson correlations revealed associations of coordination and strength with EFs and associations of all three MAs with academic performance. A multiple regression model revealed that among the three MAs, coordination was the only significant predictor of EFs (β = 0.42, p = .001). Lastly, mediation analyses revealed that the association of MAs with academic performance was mediated by EFs (indirect effect: β = 0.167, p = .003). Regarding individual motor abilities, this was only true for coordination and strength, but not for endurance.ConclusionResults show that MAs and EFs are interrelated in PCS and that EFs mediate the relationship between coordination and strength with academic performance. This may be important for the design of future physical activity interventions to improve MAs, EFs and academic performance.     

Genetic and environmental influences on executive functions and intelligence in middle childhood

Executive functions (EFs) and intelligence (IQ) are phenotypically correlated. In twin studies, latent variables for EFs and IQ display moderate to high heritability estimates; however, they show variable genetic correlations in twin studies spanning childhood to middle age. We analyzed data from over 11,000 children (9- to 10-year-olds, including 749 twin pairs) in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study to examine the phenotypic and genetic relations between EFs and IQ in childhood. We identified two EF factors—Common EF and Updating-Specific—which were both related to IQ (rs = 0.64–0.81). Common EF and IQ were heritable (53%–67%), and their genetic correlation (rG = 0.86) was not significantly different than 1. These results suggest that EFs and IQ are phenotypically but not genetically separable in middle childhood, meaning that this phenotypic separability may be influenced by environmental factors.     

Associations between parent perceived social cognitive factors and child objectively measured physical activity behaviors among preschool-aged children

Grounded in social cognitive theory (SCT), this study sought to examine whether parents perceived social cognitive factors regarding children's physical activity (PA) behaviors were associated with preschool children's moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) levels. A total of 142 Hong Kong parent-child pairs from five preschools/childcare centers completed all assessments in the cross-sectional study. Children’s (42% girls; mean age = 4.52 ± 0.67 years) PA was measured through accelerometers. Parents (74% mothers; mean age = 37.38 ± 4.63 years) completed a paper-based questionnaire assessing the social cognitive factors on their children’s PA participation. The data were analyzed using latent variable structural equation modeling. Findings revealed that the model showed acceptable fit with the data: χ² (23) = 38.14, p = .025, χ²/df = 1.66, CFI = 0.955, TLI = 0.929, RMSEA = 0.068, 90% CI [0.025, 0.106], and SRMR = 0.072. The model accounted for 39.1% of the variance in the PA behavior of preschool-aged children. Structural equation modelling revealed parental self-efficacy (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.95, 0.49]) and goal setting (β = 0.25, 95% CI [0.06, 0.44]) were directly associated with children’s MVPA. Outcome expectations (β = 0.09, 95% CI [0.01, 0.03]) and goal setting (β = 0.18, 95% CI [0.05, 0.32]) mediated the association between parental self-efficacy and children’s MVPA. Indirect associations of parental self-efficacy from setting goals via parental support (β = 0.15, 95%CI [0.02, 0.30]) and perceived barriers (β = 0.15, 95% CI [0.05, 0.28]) were uncovered. Results supported the use of SCT in understanding how the parents perceived social cognitive factors predict the PA behaviors of young children. This study provides insight into whether these theoretical variables could be modified or promoted in future intervention programs. Enhancing parents’ abilities to ensure preschool-aged children are physically active is of great importance given the global decline in PA among children.     

False memory,attentional bias and future thinking among people living with HIV with posttraumatic stress disorder

People living with HIV can experience posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Complex relationships exist between HIV, PTSD and cognitive impairments. This cross-sectional study compared three cognitive impairments (false memory, attentional bias, deficits in future thinking) among people living with HIV with and without PTSD in Iran. People living with HIV with PTSD (n = 20) and without PTSD (n = 20) completed measures of psychological symptomatology, dot-probe task, Deese Roediger McDermott paradigm and future thinking task at Razavi Khorasan Health Center. The PTSD group, when compared to the non-PTSD group, recognised a significantly greater number of false memories (p < .001; η² = .58), had an attentional bias toward threat-related words (p < .001; η² = .35) and imagined fewer specific future events (p < .001; η² = .31). People living with HIV with PTSD may have difficulties with false memory, attentional biases, and generating future events. Since psychological treatments are limited in Iran, this research highlighted some potential cognitive targets for people living with HIV.     

Education and conspiracy beliefs: A replication of van Prooijen (2017)

The main aim of the study was to replicate and extend van Prooijen's findings on how education and its outcomes (cognitive complexity, subjective social standing, self-esteem, a feeling of control and powerlessness, cognitive reflection, epistemic curiosity and scientific reasoning) predict conspiracy beliefs. In two studies (Study 1: N = 497, M_age = 49.06, SD_age = 14.92; Study 2: N = 482, M_age = 47.45, SD_age = 15.87), subjective socioeconomic status and cognitive reflection (Study 1) and a feeling of powerlessness and scientific reasoning (Study 2) contributed to the negative relationship between education level and belief in conspiracy theories. These results showed the connection of education to socioeconomic status, a feeling of control and analytic thinking (cognitive reflection, scientific reasoning) and their power to reduce conspiracy beliefs.     

Association of physical activity and fitness with executive function among preschoolers

It is well-documented in the literature that high levels of regular physical activity (PA), low levels of sedentary behavior (SB), and high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated with superior cognitive functioning, especially with regard to older populations. However, concerning other age groups (e.g., preschoolers) the available evidence documenting such a positive relationship is relatively scarce. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the association of time spent in different PA intensity zones and CRF with executive functions (EFs) in preschool-age children. To this end, preschoolers (n = 127) aged 3 to 6 years were recruited from 9 kindergarten classes in 2 districts of Shenzhen, China. The amount and the intensity of PA were assessed via accelerometry, and the CRF level was quantified by the 20-meter shuttle run test. EFs including inhibitory control and working memory were assessed using the one-on-one iPad-based Early Year Toolbox. Results suggested that children who had a higher CRF level (“impulse control” scores: β = 0.34, p < .001; “Go” accuracy: β = 0.31, p < .001; “No-Go” accuracy: β =0.28, < .001) and spentmore time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (“impulse control” scores: β = 0.50, p < .001; No-Go” accuracy: β = 0.52, p < .001) had higher scores on inhibitory control tasks, and those who had a higher CRF level had higher scores on a working memory task (β = 0.24, p < .05). The findings are discussed in light of the positive roles of MVPA and CRF for promoting EFs, but also consider the disproportionate association of PA and CRF with working memory relative to inhibition.     

Parents Plus Systemic,Solution‐Focused Parent Training Programs: Description,Review of the Evidence Base,and Meta‐Analysis

Parents Plus (PP) programs are systemic, solution‐focused, group‐based interventions. They are designed for delivery in clinical and community settings as treatment programs for families with child‐focused problems, such as behavioral difficulties, disruptive behavior disorders, and emotional disorders in young people with and without developmental disabilities. PP programs have been developed for families of preschoolers, preadolescent children, and teenagers, as well as for separated or divorced families. Seventeen evaluation studies involving over 1,000 families have shown that PP programs have a significant impact on child behavior problems, goal attainment, and parental satisfaction and stress. The effect size of 0.57 (p < .001) from a meta‐analysis of 10 controlled studies for child behavior problems compares favorably with those of meta‐analyses of other well‐established parent training programs with large evidence bases. In controlled studies, PP programs yielded significant (p < .001) effect sizes for goal attainment (d = 1.51), parental satisfaction (d = 0.78), and parental stress reduction (d = 0.54). PP programs may be facilitated by trained front‐line mental health and educational professionals.     

The Effects of Modafinil on Convergent and Divergent Thinking of Creativity: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Modafinil is a drug licensed for the treatment of narcolepsy and sleep apnea. Recently, modafinil has been reported to be used as a pharmacological cognitive enhancer by healthy individuals with no psychiatric disorders. This paper reports on a study that investigated the effects of modafinil on divergent and convergent thinking tasks of creativity. Sixty‐four healthy male (n = 31) and female (n = 33) volunteers participated in a randomized double‐blind placebo‐controlled parallel group design study. For the convergent thinking tasks, modafinil had no significant main effect on the Group Embedded Figures Task and the Remote Associates Task (RAT). However, a median split analysis showed that modafinil participants low in creativity personality trait had significantly higher RAT scores (Mean [M] = 6.85, SD = 3.39; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 5.53–8.2) than those high in creativity personality trait (M = 4.27, SD = 3.0; 95% CI: 2.4–6.0). For the divergent thinking tasks, relative to placebo (M = 1.195, SD = 0.28; 95% CI: 1.0–1.3), modafinil (M = 0.77, SD = 0.37; 95% CI: 0.63–0.92) significantly reduced the performance of flexibility scores and marginally reduced the elaboration scores as measured by the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA). Overall, participants on modafinil (M = 6.3, SD = 2.6; 95% CI: 5.3–7.4) had significantly lower ATTA scores relative to participants on placebo (M = 9.5, SD = 2.3; 95% CI: 8.6–10.4). These results indicate that modafinil might reduce divergent thinking of creativity in healthy individuals. They suggest that, rather than being a more general cognitive enhancer, modafinil might have negative and subtle effects on creativity. However, the results are from a small‐scale trial, which tested a small number of participants. Therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution. A replication with a large sample of participants is recommended.     

Predictive model for early math skills based on structural equations

Early math skills are determined by higher cognitive processes that are particularly important for acquiring and developing skills during a child's early education. Such processes could be a critical target for identifying students at risk for math learning difficulties. Few studies have considered the use of a structural equation method to rationalize these relations. Participating in this study were 207 preschool students ages 59 to 72 months, 108 boys and 99 girls. Performance with respect to early math skills, early literacy, general intelligence, working memory, and short‐term memory was assessed. A structural equation model explaining 64.3% of the variance in early math skills was applied. Early literacy exhibited the highest statistical significance (β = 0.443, p < 0.05), followed by intelligence (β = 0.286, p < 0.05), working memory (β = 0.220, p < 0.05), and short‐term memory (β = 0.213, p < 0.05). Correlations between the independent variables were also significant (p < 0.05). According to the results, cognitive variables should be included in remedial intervention programs.     

Unravelling the relationship between populism and belief in conspiracy theories: The role of cynicism,powerlessness and zero-sum thinking

In recent years, it has been argued that conspiracy beliefs and populist attitudes go hand in hand. Despite their theoretical and empirical similarities, it remains unclear why these constructs are so closely associated. Across three studies, we examined the processes underlying the relationship between belief in conspiracy theories and populist attitudes. Study 1 (Greece, N = 275) and Study 2 (United Kingdom, N = 300) revealed that the relationship between populist attitudes and conspiracy beliefs is mediated by political cynicism and zero-sum thinking. In Study 3 (USA, N = 300, pre-registered), we use a vignette of a fictitious country to experimentally show that having a newly elected populist party in power (as compared to a well-established party) reduced participants' tendency to believe conspiracy theories. Moreover, this was due to increased empowerment, decreased political cynicism and decreased zero-sum thinking. These findings reveal various complementary mediators of the link between populist attitudes and conspiracy thinking and suggest that electing a populist party in power may reduce conspiracy beliefs among the public.     

Evaluation and training of Executive Functions in genocide survivors. The case of Yazidi children

Executive Functions (EFs) development is critically affected by stress and trauma, as well as the socioeconomic context in which children grow up (Welsh, Nix, Blair, Bierman, & Nelson, 2010, Journal of Educational Psychology, 102 , 43–53). Research in this field is surprisingly lacking in relation to war contexts. This study represents a first attempt at addressing this topic by evaluating EFs in Yazidi children. The Yazidi community is an ethnic and religious minority living in Iraq. From August 2014 onwards, the Yazidi community has been the target of several atrocities perpetrated by ISIS and described as genocide by the international community at large. The University of Trieste, thanks to a program financed by the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region, developed a study aimed at (a) evaluating hot and cool EFs in children living in a war context and (b) developing a specific training method to enhance hot and cool EFs in Yazidi children of preschool age (N = 53). Data related to this group of children were compared with a sample of typically developing Italian children randomly assigned to either an EFs training group (N = 55) or a passive control group (N = 51). Results indicate different baselines in EFs in Yazidi and Italian samples and a significant effect of the program on both trained groups, especially in tasks measuring hot EFs. Data are discussed in terms of hot and cool EFs in children growing in adverse environments, as well as the evaluation of educational and developmental opportunities to prevent children who survived genocide from becoming a ‘lost generation’. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/7t_08TbxR_8 .     

Students' defending and passive bystanding behaviours when witnessing school bullying in North Western Ethiopia: Roles of personal and situational factors

Guided by Thornberg et al.'s (2012) framework on motivation to intervene, the present study examines whether personal and situational factors are associated with defending and passive bystanding behaviours in school bullying. Self-reported survey data were collected from 612 students (aged 12–16 years) attending grades 7, 8, 9, and 10 in East Gojjam Administrative Zone, North Western Ethiopia. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the strongest, significant predictors of defending were self-efficacy for defending (β = .215, p = .000), affective empathy (β = .173, p = .000), students' experience as victim (β = .119, p = .002), personal sense of power (β = .119, p = .006), followed by moral disengagement (β = .118, p = .002), and age level (β = −.082, p = .036). All variables jointly explained 18.6% of the total variance in defending, F (12, 599) = 11.397, p < .00; with medium effect size (f² = 0.23). In contrast, the strongest predictors of passive bystanding were moral disengagement (β = .233, p = .000), perceived costs and benefits of defending (β = −.163, p = .000), self-efficacy (β = −.139, p = .003), students' experience as victim (β = .097, p = .014), followed by gender (β = −.080, p = .042). The model explained 16.7% of the total variance in passive bystanding, F (12, 599) = 10.043, p < .001; with medium effect size (f² = 0.20). The findings enrich our understanding of factors associated with defending and passive bystanding behaviours. The implications for intervention are discussed. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.     

Physical fitness,cognitive functioning and academic achievement in healthy adolescents

PurposeExamine the association between health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness) and skill-related physical fitness (speed-agility) and both cognitive functions and academic achievement in adolescents (12–15 years).MethodsData of 423 Dutch adolescents were analyzed (46.8% boys, age = 13.45 ± 0.43 years). Physical fitness was assessed using five subtests of the Eurofit test battery measuring cardiorespiratory fitness (20 m Shuttle Run Test), muscular fitness (Broad Jump and Sit-Ups) and speed-agility (10 × 5 m Shuttle Run Test and Plate Tapping Test). Cognitive functions were assessed by the Digit Span Task, the Grid Task and an adapted version of the Attention Network Test. Finally, academic achievement was assessed by two standardized tests assessing mathematic skills and language skills. Multilevel regression analyses were performed in MlWin to examine the relations of interest adjusting for sex and age.ResultsMultilevel regression analysis showed that speed-agility was significantly related to visuospatial working memory (β = 0.159; p = 0.014), information processing and control (β = 0.238; p < 0.001) and interference control (β = 0.156; p = 0.039), but not to the other cognitive or academic achievement outcomes. Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness were not related to any of the cognitive or academic achievement outcomes.ConclusionThe results suggest that skill-related physical fitness is related to cognitive functions and health-related physical fitness is not. Therefore it can be argued that improved levels of skill-related physical fitness may lead to improved cognitive functioning.     

Critical Thinking Disposition and Scientific Creativity: The Mediating Role of Creative Self-Efficacy

This study explores the relationship between critical thinking disposition and scientific creativity and examines the hypothesized mediating role played by creative self-concept (trait-like creative self-efficacy). A large sample (N = 1,153) of Chinese high school students filled the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory and revised trait-like creative self-efficacy scale, and then solved Scientific Creativity Test for Adolescent. Structural equation modeling has demonstrated that students’ critical thinking disposition was positively related to their creative self-concept and scientific creativity, and creative self-concept fully mediated the link between critical thinking disposition and scientific creativity. We discuss these findings in terms of the hypothetical role played by creative self-concept for creative functioning.     

Associations of physical activity and gross motor skills with executive function in preschool children from low‐income South African settings

Executive function is foundational for cognitive development. Previous research has shown both gross motor skills and physical activity to be related to executive function. However, evidence for these relationships in the preschool years, as well as in low‐ and middle‐income countries is lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the relationships between components of executive function (inhibition, shifting and working memory) and gross motor skills (locomotor skills and object control skills) in a sample of preschool children from urban and rural low‐income settings in South Africa. Results revealed that inhibition and working memory, but not shifting, were associated with gross motor skills. More specifically: inhibition was associated with both locomotor [β = 0.20, p = 0.047] and object control skills [β = 0.24, p = 0.024], whereas working memory was only associated with locomotor skills [β = 0.21, p = 0.039]. Physical activity was not associated with inhibition and shifting but was negatively associated with working memory. These results elaborate a growing evidence base linking executive function and gross motor skills in the early years, and it is the first to look at specific associations of locomotor and object control skills with executive function in the South African context (a low‐ and middle‐income country).     

Couple Adjustment and Differentiation of Self in the United States,Italy, and Spain: A Cross-Cultural Study

This study comprises a first attempt to explore a cross-cultural application of Bowen family systems theory and examines the relationship between differentiation of self and couple adjustment using measurement invariance. A sample of 2,141 individuals (n = 915 from the United States; n = 635 from Italy; n = 591 from Spain) completed measures of differentiation of self (DSI-R; Skowron & Schmitt, J Marital Fam Ther, 29, 2003, 209) and couple adjustment (DAS; Spanier, J Marriage Fam, 38, 1976, 15). Results showed evidence of partial measurement equivalence for the DSI-R across the three samples. Additionally, results from latent regression showed that less emotional cutoff predicted greater couple adjustment in the United States, Spain, and Italy, whereas greater emotional reactivity predicted poorer couple adjustment only in the more collectivistic cultures, Spain and Italy. Our findings are consistent with prior empirical studies, which suggest that emotional cutoff is a strong predictor of relationship adjustment. The use of measurement invariance provides a foundation for future studies to continue employing rigorous statistical methods when examining constructs across different cultures. The findings highlight culture-specific similarities and differences in differentiation that may benefit practitioners by informing psychotherapy with individuals, couples, or families from diverse populations.     

Social information processing skills link executive functions to aggression in adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual disability

Executive Functions (EFs) have been associated with aggression in children and adolescents. EFs as higher-order cognitive abilities are assumed to affect cognitive functions such as Social Information Processing (SIP). We explored SIP skills as a mediating mechanism linking EFs to aggression in adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual disability (MBID with IQ from 50–84), a high risk group for aggressive behaviors and EF impairments. A total of 153 adolescents (M_age = 15.24, SD = 1.35; 54% male) with MBID participated. Focused attention, behavioral inhibition, and working memory were tested with multiple neurocognitive tasks to define latent EF constructs. Participants responded to a video-based SIP task. A latent construct for aggression was defined by caretaker, teacher, and adolescent self-reports of aggression (Child Behavior Check List, Teacher Report Form, and Youth Self Report). Structural equation modeling was performed to test mediation. Results were consistent with mediation of the relation between focused attention and aggression by SIP, namely via hostile interpretations and self-efficacy for aggression. Behavioral inhibition was linked to aggression, but this relation was not mediated by SIP. The relation between working memory and aggression was mediated by SIP, namely via hostile interpretations, aggressive response generation and via self-efficacy for aggressive responses. Bearing the cross-sectional design in mind, support was found for SIP skills as a mechanism linking EFs, in particular focused attention and working memory, to aggression, providing a viable explanation for the high vulnerability of adolescents with MBID for aggression.     

Executive function in paediatric medulloblastoma: The role of cerebrocerebellar connections

Executive functions (EFs) are involved in the attainment, maintenance, and integration of information; these functions may play a key role in cognitive and behavioural outcomes in children treated for medulloblastoma (MB). At present, it remains unclear which EFs are most sensitive to the treatment effects for MB and whether damage to cerebrocerebellar circuitry is associated with EF. We completed a comprehensive evaluation of EF in 24 children treated for MB and 20 age‐matched healthy children (HC) and distilled these measures into components. Six components (C1–C6) were extracted from our model, reflecting dissociable constructs of EF: C1 = cognitive efficiency; C2 = planning/problem‐solving; C3 = positive cognitive emotion regulation; C4 = working memory; C5 = negative cognitive emotion regulation; and C6 = mixed cognitive emotion regulation. Group differences were found for C1, C2, C3, and C4; the MB group showed poorer performance on EF tasks and made less use of positive cognitive emotion regulation strategies relative to HC. Compromise to cerebrocerebellar microstructure – cerebro‐ponto‐cerebellar and cerebello‐thalamo‐cerebral pathways – was evident in children treated for MB compared to HC. We found that cerebrocerebellar circuitry has a mediating effect on one component of EF following treatment for MB – working memory.     

Predicting change in middle school students’ leisure-time physical activity participation: A prospective test of the trans-contextual model

We applied the trans-contextual model (TCM) to examine the effects of middle school students’ perceived autonomy support from their physical education (PE) teachers on autonomous motivation toward PE in school and, critically, autonomous motivation toward, and actual participation in, leisure-time physical activity (PA). The research adopted a three-wave prospective design enabling the modeling of change in the TCM constructs over time. Middle school students (N = 248) aged from 12 to 16 years reported their perceived autonomy support, autonomous motivation in PE, autonomous motivation toward leisure-time PA, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), intentions for PA in leisure-time, and leisure-time PA participation. The psychological constructs and leisure-time PA were measured at baseline (T0) and at a first follow-up occasion (T1) 5 weeks later. Another measure of PA was taken at a second follow-up occasion (T2) a further 5 weeks later. A single-indicator structural equation model using residualized change scores revealed that perceived autonomy support predicted autonomous motivation in PE (β = .345), and autonomous motivation in PE predicted autonomous motivation for leisure-time PA (β = .484). Autonomous motivation toward leisure-time PA predicted attitudes (β = .425), subjective norms (β = .264), and PBC (β = .517). Autonomous motivation toward leisure-time PA (β = .376), attitude (β = .231), and subjective norms (β = .185) predicted intentions toward leisure-time PA, and intentions predicted PA (β = .198). Findings extend research on the TCM by demonstrating its efficacy in predicting change in middle school students’ autonomous motivation across PE and leisure-time contexts, and accounting for change in intentions toward, and actual participation in, leisure-time PA.