错误管理理论（EMT）在社会心理学中的应用及前景

EMT是社会认知领域中的一种新的认知偏差理论。EMT是基于统计学上的两类基本错误,在对一种新的认知偏差——适应性偏差进行解释时提出的。认为处于不能确定情况下的个体,在判断和决策过程中,有可能犯两种不可避免的错误,个体通过对犯这两种错误的代价进行比较,往往会选择犯其中代价较小的错误。作者在阐述这一理论的同时,指出了EMT在社会心理学中广泛的应用前景,尤其在侵犯等一些社会心理领域中具有不可估量的理论意义和实践价值。     

婴儿心理理论的发展:表现和机制

婴儿心理理论发展研究是探索人类社会认知起源、发生和发展的重要领域.从联合注意、情绪理解、意图理解、愿望理解和错误信念理解等方面分析了几个月至3岁左右的婴儿心理理论发生和发展的研究现状.为了探讨3岁以下婴儿心理理论的发展过程,研究者发展了一些适合婴儿语言和行为发展特征的非言语和言语测试任务,包括非言语自发—反应错误信念任务、言语自发—反应错误信念任务,同时也采用眼动技术和事件相关电位技术来考察心理理论发展水平和发展机制.婴儿心理理论的发生和发展在不同测试任务上表现出一定的年龄特征.这与认知功能(如语言、执行功能)的发展、环境因素(如家庭、同伴、文化)以及神经系统发育有关.也有一些最新研究从心理理论发生和发展的基因、激素水平进行了探讨.最后提出了该领域未来研究可以进一步探讨的问题.     

"心理理论"的神经机制:来自脑成像的证据

"心理理论"是认知发展领域的研究热点之一,迄今已积累了大量行为研究的证据.心理理论具有领域特异的模块化认知机制,脑成像研究中也发现心理理论任务激活前额叶皮质等多个模块区域.论文阐述了真实表征与错误信念、心智互动等心理理论推理的神经机制,总结了该领域存在的问题并对今后研究的发展趋势进行了展望.     

错误信念理解后儿童心理理论的发展

错误信念理解后儿童心理理论的进一步发展是近年来发展心理学研究中比较活跃的一个课题。该文在简要介绍儿童心理理论获得的主要标志--错误信念理解的基础上,概括阐述了该领域研究的现状和存在的争议。     

认知偏向研究的进化心理学视角

这篇文章从进化心理学的视角阐述了认知偏向研究的方法和基本理论,进化心理学认为人类认知存在系统的偏向,这种有偏的认知通常是自然选择设计的特征.认知偏向的误差管理理论认为:如果认知在不确定条件下做出,并且错误肯定和错误否定的错误的成本在进化历史上不对称情况循环出现,自然选择偏爱犯最小成本错误的认知偏向.认知偏向研究的进化心理学方式有助于系统地产生关于领域特定化的认知偏向的预测.     

论马克思的社会有机体理论

马克思的“社会有机体”理论是历史唯物主义渗透到人的发展、社会活动等领域中去的中介理论。本来,借助于“社会有机体”这个中介理论,可以逻辑地形成历史唯物主义——社会有机体——社会和人的具体活动领域这三个层次的马克思主义的社会发展理论,然而,由于种种历史原因,人们在对马克思社会有机体理论的理解上发生两个偏差:(一)仅仅把社会有     

决策风格的理论发展及建构：基于信息加工视角

决策风格是人们在决策中表现出来的习惯性或独特的行为模式, 对决策、管理等领域均有重要影响。近年兴起的决策风格理论主要基于个体信息加工策略, 如基于双加工理论和基于后悔情绪的决策风格模型等。决策风格对个体决策的影响表现在决策策略与偏差、情绪和无意识加工等方面。该领域在诸如决策风格的主要理论、测量工具和理论检验等方面亦取得积极进展, 未来研究方向应注意基于双加工理论和进化心理学建构决策风格理论。     

科学理论的可错性、相对性和逼真性

科学史是一部科学理论不断被充实、修正和更替 ,科学理论中的错误内容和错误外推不断被发现和纠正的历史。把科学理论等同于真理 ,就会把科学理论绝对化和教条化 ,束缚科学理论的发展。但承认科学理论可错性的同时 ,还须予以正确理解和对待 ,要看到科学领域中的错误理论在特定历史阶段上曾起过的积极作用。绝对主义的真理观遭到了来自三个方面的挑战 ,但相对主义真理观也存在着至少四个方面的错误。只要承认科学认识中存在着真理 ,科学认识是对真理的不断接近 ,就在逻辑上肯定了科学理论的逼真性 ,而在对逼真性的辩证理解中已经包含着逼真度的概念。判断科学理论的逼真度 ,可以从两个方面来着手。用以确证理论内容逼真度的实践标准是多种多样的 ,然而对理论的新颖预测的证实是最重要的标准     

交易成本理论的失误

近十年来,交易成本理论在国内的影响力大幅上升.它既取得了大量成就,但也被困惑包围.笔者认为,由于此理论混淆了两个基本概念"交易成本"与"交易费用",这一错误使整个交易成本理论陷入混乱,也误导了实践,损害了经济秩序和社会公平.笔者认为,当交易成本是不均匀地配置到每个参与者时,交易就对经济秩序和社会公平产生了强烈的影响.     

Tatsuoka Q矩阵理论的修正

K.K.Tatsuoka和她同事开发的规则空间模型(RSM)是一种在国内外有较大影响的认知诊断模型,但是Tatsuoka的RSM中Q矩阵理论存在缺陷和错误,这些失误使得RSM中用布尔描述函数(BDF)计算被试理想项目反应模式(IRP)的方法缺乏理论依据.这里揭示了Tatsuoka的Q矩阵理论的缺陷和错误并引进既不使用BDF又便于应用的计算IRP的方法;接着还介绍一种由可达阵计算简化Q阵的方法,该方法显示了可达阵在构造认知诊断测验的重要性.这些结果对丰富Q矩阵理论及正确使用RSM进行认知诊断有一定的意义.     

流言理论和问题理论

把流言理论和问题理论联系起来似乎并不合适。不小过,人们也许会轻易地把一则流言理解为一种解答,即当做对于从集体角度来看具有重要意义的某个问题的、特别具有就事论事色彩的、完全以精神上的即兴创作为标志的解答：例如,为了说明一个人为什么完全有理由担忧,为了说明一个人可能有的、对某项新发明持敌意态度的无论什么理由,     

OBJECTIFICATION THEORY

This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.     

ILLUSTRATING FEMINIST THEORY

Feminist theory holds that many of the pathological behaviors observed in patients result from their position in the social hierarchy. The goals of the demonstration detailed in this article are to show the impact of current gender roles on the psychological well-being of women and men and to generate understanding and discussion of the problems that relative status can create in the therapeutic relationship. This teaching demonstration draws parallels between the Zimbardo (1971) prison experiment and the impact that assignment to low-and high-power roles can have on the psychological health of women and men. Students are asked to rate men and women on some of the diagnostic criteria that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) associates with Axis I and II diagnoses. The students watch a video of Zimbardo's prison study and then rate the prisoners and guards. This demonstration provides another explanation for gender patterns in psychopathology by demonstrating that psychologically healthy White males will develop different patterns of psychopathology depending on whether they are placed in a dominant or subordinate role. When placed in the subordinate role, they exhibit behaviors typically seen in women clients; when placed in a dominant role they exhibit behaviors commonly associated with male clients. This exercise demonstrates the unhealthy nature of the gender roles for both women and men.     

INTUITIONS AND SEMANTIC THEORY

Abstract: While engaged in the analysis of philosophically central concepts, analytic philosophers have traditionally relied extensively on their own intuitions about when such concepts can be correctly applied. Intuitions have, however, come under increasingly critical scrutiny of late, and if they turned out not to be a reliable tool for the proper analysis of our concepts, then a radical reworking of analytic philosophy's methodology would be in order. One influential line of criticism against the use of intuitions argues that they only tell us about our conceptions of things, and not the things themselves. This venerable line of criticism can seem considerably strengthened if one endorses “externalist” accounts of meaning. Nevertheless, the move from semantic externalism to the rejection of intuitions will be shown to be illegitimate if one has a constitutive rather than expressive understanding of the relation between our intuitions and our concepts.     

DECISION AFFECT THEORY:

Abstract— How do people feel about the outcomes of risky options? Results from two experiments demonstrate that the emotional reaction to a monetary outcome is nor a simple function of the utility of that outcome Emotional responses also depend on probabilities and unobtained outcomes Unexpected outcomes have greater emotional impact than expected outcomes Furthermore any given outcome is lets pleasant if an unobtained outcome is better We propose an account of emotional experiences associated with outcomes of decisions called decision affect theory. It incorporates utilities expectations and counterfactual companions into hedonic responses. Finally, we show that choices between risky options can be described as the maximization of expected emotional experiences as predicted by decision affect theory That is people choose the risky option for which they expect to feel better on average.