Parent-completed and adolescent-completed CDIs: Relationship to adolescent social and cognitive functioning

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of both young adolescents' scores on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and their mothers' ratings of the adolescents' depression (parent-completed CDI) to indices of their social and cognitive functioning obtained from a source outside the home. Subjects consisted of a nonclinic sample of 85 young adolescents (11–15 years of age), their mothers, and their social studies teachers. Recent school grades and teacher-completed measures served as the indices of adolescent social and cognitive competence. The results indicated that both adolescents' and mothers' CDI scores were significantly and negatively correlated with measures of adolescent cognitive and social functioning. Multiple regression analyses, utilizing adolescent- and parent-completed CDI scores as predictors, indicated that both predictor variables entered into the equations for cognitive functioning while only the mother-completed CDI entered into those for social functioning. When maternal depression was also entered into the multiple regressions, the findings regarding mother- and adolescent-completed CDI scores were not altered. The relationship of these findings to other somewhat disparate findings concerning the utility of mother and child reports of child depression is discussed.This research was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Self-perceived and independently observed competence of young adolescents as a function of parental marital conflict and recent divorce

The self-perceived and independently observed cognitive and social competence of young adolescents as a function of parental conflict and recent divorce was investigated. Subjects were 40 young adolescents between the ages of 11 years 1 month and 15 years 1 month. A 2×2 factorial design was used, with the independent variables being parental marital status (married vs. recently divorced) and parental conflict (high vs. low). Dependent variables included the following measures of adolescent competence: adolescent-completed measures of self-perceived competence, teacher-completed measures, behavioral observations, and school grades. The results indicated that the level of parental conflict, rather than parental marital status, appears to be the critical variable associated with adolescents' independently observed levels of cognitive and social competence. In regard to adolescents' self-perceived levels of cognitive and social competence, parental marital status was found to be the critical variable. The implications of these findings are discussed.This research was supported by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Teachers'' ratings of social competence of children with high versus low levels of depressive symptoms

This study examined the relationship between children's self-ratings of depressive symptoms on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and teachers' ratings of the situational social competence of these children based on the Taxonomy of Problematic Social Situations (TOPS). Children in the high CDI group showed significantly higher teacher ratings (indicating lower social competence) than children in the low CDI group on four TOPS scales: peer group entry, response to provocation, response to success, and teacher expectations. Of the children in the high CDI group, 85% could be correctly classified with a discriminant analysis on the basis of TOPS ratings; of the children in the low CDI group, 77% were correctly classified. Implications of these findings, as well as limitations of the study, are discussed.     

Social competence in Zimbabwean multicultural schools: Effects of ethnic and gender differences

S tudents' social competence was investigated in relation to race/ethnicity and gender for a sample of 371 Zimbabwean students attending racially/ethnically integrated schools. About 42% of the students were black, and 58% white (mean age 12 years; SD=9 months). Peer and teacher sociometric ratings of children's social behaviour, social responsibility, and friendliness comprised the social competence measures. Tests of empirical independence among these social competence measures supported their uniqueness in reliably assessing components of the general construct of social competence among Zimbabwean students. Multiple analysis of variance procedures were used to examine the relationship between social competence statuses and group membership (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender) while controlling for aggregate scores and classroom racial proportions. Superior academic achievement and racial/ehnic propinquity are social status levelling factors in multiracial school settings. Teachers rated white students higher on social responsibility and social behaviour. Students rated white students higher on social responsibility only. Comparisons of social competence by ethnicity and gender revealed that white and female students were rated significantly higher on social behaviour and social responsibility than their black and male classmates. Female students were perceived as more socially competent or better adjusted to school than males. Reliable differences in social competence in race/ethnicity and gender groups were concentrated in peer ratings of social responsibility and in teacher ratings of social behaviour and social responsibility. In postcolonial settings or settings with a history of race/ethnicity and gender‐based privilege, minorities from a dominant culture may have higher social status than peers from a majority culture. Superior social competence in females is a resource for school adaptation and social climate. Students have perceptions of social competence in peers that only partially overlap with those of teachers and contribute uniquely to their experience of school. Social competence in students is multifaceted, gendered, and differently perceived by teachers and peers.     

儿童2岁活跃性、自我控制与5年后学校适应——父母养育方式的调节作用

通过5年的追踪,考察儿童早期气质特征对后期社会适应的影响。选取200名2岁儿童,采用实验室观察法评价其气质上的活跃性和自我控制;在其7岁时追踪到125名儿童,请父母报告养育方式、班主任老师评价其社会能力和学业表现。结果表明：（1）儿童2岁时的活跃性对5年后学校适应的预测总体是消极的,并且受父母养育方式调节;父母的高限制和低压制能够抵消活跃性对学习问题和任务定向的消极影响;（2）儿童2岁时的自我控制对于5年后的所有积极学校适应指标（学业成绩、低学习问题、果敢社交、挫折耐受、任务定向）有直接预测作用。这一结果揭示了气质上的活跃性与自我控制在儿童发展过程中的不同作用,父母应根据孩子的气质特点实行差别化教育。     

Measurement of adolescents' life events: The junior high life experiences survey

The first of these two studies examined the relationship between adolescents' scores on a social desirability questionnaire and scores of negative, positive, and total life events. Only number of positive events was significantly related to social desirability. The second study compared various scoring strategies with respect to their intercorrelation and their ability to predict adolescents' maladjustment (depression, anxiety, and number of missed school days). The results demonstrated that (a) total number of events and readjustment-weighted life change scores were equally predictive of the maladjustment criteria; (b) negative events, but not positive events, however scored, were significantly related to the maladjustment criteria; (c) indices based on psychologist-judges' ratings of event desirability were not more predictive of the maladjustment criteria than were indices based on the adolescents' self-reports; and (d) uncontrollable negative events and controllable negative events were equally predictive of the maladjustment criteria.     

Adolescent depressed mood and young adult functioning: A longitudinal study

The present study examined two aspects of depressed mood in adolescence: (1) stability across the adolescent years and (2) ability to predict functioning in young adulthood. Participants included 82 Caucasian individuals (46 females and 36 males) who were assessed one time per year for 4 consecutive years during adolescence (mean age at initial assessment = 13.5 years) and again during young adulthood (mean age = 19). The results indicated that depressed mood, as measured by the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), remained relatively stable across at least 3 consecutive years of data collection during adolescence. In addition, adolescent CDI scores predicted young adult functioning in each of four areas: prosocial competence, self-esteem, externalizing problems, and internalizing problems.This study was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Children with behaviour problems: the influence of social competence and social relations on problem stability,school achievement and peer acceptance across the first six years of school

The aims of the present study were to investigate the role for problematic children of the child's social competence, teacher relations and behaviour with peers for later problem persistence, school performance and peer acceptance, in terms of moderating (protective and exacerbating) and independent effects. Groups of children with externalizing (n=26) and internalizing (n=25) problems and a non‐problematic group (n=44) were followed from grade 1–6. Teachers rated behaviour problems and social competence in the first, third and sixth grades, the teacher–child relationship in third grade, and school achievement in sixth grade. Behaviour with peers was assessed in observations in later elementary school. Peer acceptance was assessed through peer nominations in sixth grade. Both problem groups had lower social competence, school achievement and peer acceptance in sixth grade than the non‐problematic group. There were moderating and independent effects of social competence, teacher and peer relations on outcomes, but these applied mainly to children with internalizing problems. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

新时代青少年价值观的构成特征与适应功能研究

在中国改革开放和社会变迁的新时代背景下,分析青少年价值观构成特征,形成有效的测量工具,并对初、高中共780名学生的价值观结构及价值观的学校和社会适应功能进行调查。结果发现：中国青少年价值观由社会平等、集体取向 、遵纪守则、亲情、友情、上进竞争、时尚、享受快乐 8个维度构成,问卷具有良好的信、效度;男生相对女生更认同友情,初中生相比高中生更认同社会公平和亲情,高中生更认同享受快乐;青少年价值观各维度对学校和社会适应的某些指标具有预测作用：对上进竞争的认同可以正向预测学业成绩和学校能力;对时尚的认同负向预测学业成绩和亲社会行为,正向预测学习问题;对亲情的认同正向预测社会能力和亲社会行为;对友情的认同正向预测同伴偏好。总体而言,新时代青少年价值观构成特征受到自身发展阶段、社会经济文化等因素的影响,研究结果有助于理解现阶段青少年健康心理发展与价值观教育之间的关系,对未来的青少年价值观教育提供了心理学的实证依据。     

Apples and Oranges: Divergent Meanings of Parents' and Adolescents' Perceptions of Parental Influence

This study examines the hypothesis that effective parental influence stems from the qualities of the parent-adolescent relationship rather than from explicit efforts to alter adolescents' behaviors. Adolescents' versus parents' perceptions of parental influence as predictors of parent-adolescent relationship quality and of adolescents' social functioning are examined using observational and multireporter data obtained from a sample of 167 adolescents (90 female, 77 male; age M = 13.34 years, SD = 0.65), their parents, and their same-sex peers. Analyses revealed that adolescents' and parents' perceptions of parental influence were uncorrelated with one another and were differentially related to qualities of adolescents' relationships with parents and friends. Adolescents' perceptions of high parental influence were linked to observations and self-reports of warm, supportive relationships with parents (particularly mothers). In contrast, parents' reports of high influence were linked to lower levels of adolescent autonomy with parents and friends and less relatedness with mothers and friends.     

Differential effects of cognitive behavior modification on seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents exhibiting internalizing or externalizing problems

This study examined the differential effects of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention on (a) the interpersonal/social skills and (b) the social competence and school adjustment of two groups of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. One groups of students exhibited internalizing emotional problems and the other group exhibited externalizing emotional problems. The objective of the study was to investigate whether the effectiveness of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention was significantly related to the type of emotional disturbance a student exhibits (i.e. internalizing or externalizing emotional disturbance). The sample consisted of an experimental and a control group of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. The intervention was implemented in 23 biweekly 42-minute sessions. The results indicated that teacher ratings of student social competence and school adjustment were sensitive to treatment effects, although students' social skills self-ratings were not significantly affected by the treatment. A differential treatment effect was established in that externalizing students were significantly more responsive than internalizing students.     

Agreement among teacher,peer, and self-ratings of children's aggression,withdrawal, and likability

This study examined the relationship among teacher, peer, and self-ratings of children's social behavior. The Pupil Evaluation Inventory was completed by 172 first-graders, 346 fourth-graders, 283 seventh-graders, and 30 teachers. Groups of deviant responders and controls were also selected from the total sample on the basis of peer-rated aggression and withdrawal scores. Interrater agreement was consistently greater between peer and teacher ratings than between self-ratings and either peer or teacher ratings. Discrepancies between raters were greatest for children with more deviant scores, with peer ratings providing the highest estimates of deviant behavior, and self ratings yielding the lowest. Self ratings were lower than teacher or peer ratings on aggression and withdrawal, and higher on likability. Aggression produced greatest agreement between raters. Agreement was uninfluenced by the cognitive maturity of peer evaluators. The results suggest that the selection of raters should be influenced by the class of behaviors to be evaluated and the context in which they occur.This research was funded by Québec Ministry of Social Affairs Grant RS 281 to Jane Ledingham and Alex Schwartzman. The authors wish to thank Lisa Serbin for her helpful comments on this article, and Claude Senneville, Geoff Selig, and Denise Morin for their assistance in the data collection and analysis.     

Risk and Protective Factors for Children of Adolescents: Maternal Depression and Parental Sense of Competence

We investigated the relationship between depression and parental sense of competence to child cognitive outcomes for a sample of 49 adolescent mothers and their young children (Mean age=9 1/2 months) enrolled in a student parenting program. Cognitive development of the infants and toddlers was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Maternal depression was assessed with the CES-D and parental competence measured with the Parental Sense of Competence Scale. Results indicated that maternal depression and parental sense of competence alone did not predict children’s cognitive scores; the interaction of the variables significantly predicted children’s outcomes. Mothers reporting high levels of depression, who self-reported high levels of parental competence, had children who scored higher on the Bayley. Children of mothers with high levels of depression, and low reported levels of competence scored lower on the Bayley. The relationship was not significant for mothers reporting low levels of depression. Our findings suggest additional research needs to focus on the buffering effect of parental sense of competence for adolescent mothers experiencing depression.     

LEADERSHIP AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS OF HISPANIC FEMALES ACROSS SCHOOL EQUITY ENVIRONMENTS

Nonverbal behaviors of Hispanic elementary school students and their peers were examined in a small-group cooperative task with a total of 202 subjects. Thirty-five randomly selected groups were videotaped in ten desegregated schools; each group was gender-homogeneous, with three Hispanic and three Anglo students. Analysis of the videotapes revealed that Hispanic females used less vertical and horizontal space than Anglo females, and were also less likely to verbally interrupt or physically intrude on other group members. They had similar rates of handling the group resource cards and were given similar leadership scores by multi-ethnic trained observers. Among males, Hispanics are significantly more likely to use vertical or upward movements and physical intrusions, while Anglos use more verbal interruptions.
School and social status factors such as high-and low-equity desegregated school programs, ethnic and gender status, and school status variables of academic grades and English word knowledge had varying effects on teacher and peer ratings of leadership. High-equity schools garnered higher leadership scores for Hispanic females from both peers and teachers when all other nonverbal behaviors were controlled. This positive effect of the school on leadership ratings was evident only for males in teacher ratings. Hispanic females and their peers do reflect adult models of nonverbal behavior and leadership, and that leadership is enhanced in the perceptions of teachers and peers when they participate in a high-equity desegregated elementary school.     

The effects of religious socialization and religious identity on psychosocial functioning in Korean American adolescents from immigrant families

This study examined religious identity as a mediator and moderator between religious socialization by parents, peers, and religious mentors and psychosocial functioning (i.e., social competence, internalizing and externalizing behavior problems) among 155 Korean American adolescents. Religious socialization by parents and peers were positively associated with adolescents' religious identity and social competence. Religious identity fully mediated the relationship between religious socialization by parents and social competence, and partially mediated the relationship between religious socialization by peers and social competence. A competing model with religious identity as a moderator found adolescents with low religious identity showed significantly more externalizing behavior problems when they received more religious socialization from parents.     

青少年社会认知复杂性与同伴交往的相关分析

社会认知复杂性是描述个体社会认知结构特点的个体差异变量,作为社会认知领域的研究热点,当前却鲜有研究关注它与同伴交往的关系。本研究选取初一至高二234名中学生考察了社会认知复杂性与同伴交往之间的关系,并辅以人际交往能力、学业成就通过结构方程模型进一步探讨了二者之间关联的路径。结果表明：（1）青少年社会认知复杂性与同伴接受、同伴拒绝、人际交往能力、学业成就之间存在显著相关。社会认知复杂性高的学生获得了较多的同伴接纳、较少的同伴拒绝,并具有较高的人际交往能力和学业成就。（2）青少年社会认知复杂性以人际交往能力和学业成就为中介变量间接影响同伴的受欢迎程度。     

What Specific Facets of Executive Function are Associated with Academic Functioning in Youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the relation between ratings of Executive Function (EF) and academic functioning in a sample of 94 middle-school-aged youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; Mage = 11.9; 78 % male; 21 % minority). This study builds on prior work by evaluating associations between multiple specific aspects of EF (e.g., working memory, inhibition, and planning and organization) as rated by both parents and teachers on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), with multiple academic outcomes, including school grades and homework problems. Further, this study examined the relationship between EF and academic outcomes above and beyond ADHD symptoms and controlled for a number of potentially important covariates, including intelligence and achievement scores. The EF Planning and Organization subscale as rated by both parents and teachers predicted school grades above and beyond symptoms of ADHD and relevant covariates. Parent ratings of youth’s ability to transition effectively between tasks/situations (Shift subscale) also predicted school grades. Parent-rated symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and planning and organization abilities were significant in the final model predicting homework problems. In contrast, only symptoms of inattention and the Organization of Materials subscale from the BRIEF were significant in the teacher model predicting homework problems. Organization and planning abilities are highly important aspects academic functioning for middle-school-aged youth with ADHD. Implications of these findings for the measurement of EF, and organization and planning abilities in particular, are discussed along with potential implications for intervention.     

Adolescent functioning as a consequence of recent parental divorce and the parent-adolescent relationship

The purpose of this study was to examine young adolscents' functioning as a consequence of recent parental divorce and the parent-adolescent relationship. More specifically, recent divorce and a por adolescent relartionship with each parent were viewed as stressors, and it was hypothesized that as the number of stressors increased, adolescent functioning would deteriorate. Fifty-eight young adolescents (ages 11–14), 13 from intact families and 28 from recently divorced families, and their social-studies teachers participated in the study. Adolescents completed an instrument designed to measure their relationship with each parent. Based on this instrument and the marital status of the parents, adolescents were assigned to 1 of 6 groups depending upon wether they were from intact or divorced families and whether they had a good relationship with both, one, or either parent(s). Grades were obtained from the adolescent's most recent report card and social studies teaches completed instruments concerning cognitive and social competence, including internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The results indicated that both the marital status of the parent-adolescent relationship were related to adolscent functioning. Of particular importance, the presence of 3 stressors (divorce, poor relationship with mother, and poor relationship with father) was associated with more adolescent difficulties than the presence of 0, 1, or 2 stressors. Hypotheses for the obtained results and implications are discused.     

Adolescent Adjustment to Perceived Marital Conflict

The cognitive-contextual framework of Grych and Fincham (1990) and the emotional-security framework of Davies and Cummings (1994) were used to explore both the direct and indirect pathways between marital conflict and adolescent adjustment. Two hundred and three non-clinic adolescents (114 females and 89 males) from intact families completed self-report questionnaires concerning their adjustment behavior, perceptions of parental conflict, and attachment to parents and peers. Marital conflict was found to have a direct effect upon adolescent adjustment, with adolescents from high-conflict homes displaying greater adjustment difficulties. Indirect effects of conflict were evident through both the adolescents' cognitive appraisals of conflict, and the adolescents' perceptions of the parent-child relationship. Differential gender effects were obtained, highlighting the importance of adolescent gender as a mediating variable. These findings were used to propose that an integrated, cognitive-emotional framework might be necessary to fully understand the conflict/adjustment relationship.     

Practicum and On-the-job Ratings of School Counselors

Practicum ratings of 50 school counselors were examined in relation to administrators' subsequent on-the-job ratings of their performance. The relationship proved negligible. The practicum ratings did relate, however, to retention of cognitive material in guidance and counseling (scores on a comprehensive examination). Such a relationship did not exist between scores on the same comprehensive examination and the administrators' ratings. It was suggested that cognitive standards for counselors are probably best established and maintained by training institutions. Administrators seeking assurance of at least minimum cognitive competency in counselors ought to seek endorsement of candidates from those who observe their practicum performance.