Disentangling Type A behavior: The roles of ambition,insensitivity, and anxiety

This study identified stable components of Type A behavior as usually defined, and examined their relationships with more traditional psychological constructs. Overall scores on the most popular Type A measure (a version of the Jenkins Activity Survey) were moderately associated with ambition but largely unrelated to measures of adjustment. An item analysis yielded subcomponents of Drivenness and Involvement. Drivenness was unrelated to ambition, but was positively related to anxiety and negatively related to interpersonal perceptiveness. Involvement was positively related to ambition and to interpersonal competence. It is suggested that the Jenkins Activity Survey measures a heterogeneous mixture of constructive commitment and self-defeating responses that clouds its psychological interpretation.     

Perfectionism,Type A Behavior,and Self-Efficacy in Depression and Health Symptoms among Adolescents

The current study examined the associations among dimensions of perfectionism, Type A behavior, self-efficacy, distress, and health symptoms in high school students. A sample of 73 high school students (34 boys, 39 girls) completed measures of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, Type A behavior, self-efficacy, depressive symptoms, and psychosomatic symptoms. Correlational analyses found that self-oriented perfectionism was marginally related to Type A behavior. Students with elevated levels of depressive symptoms were also characterized by self-oriented perfectionism, Type A behavior, low self-efficacy, and health symptoms. In addition, health symptoms were linked with low self-efficacy. Simultaneous entry of several variables into a regression analysis found that significant unique predictors of depression were low self-efficacy and elevated self-oriented perfectionism. Similarly, a regression analysis found that low self-efficacy and high self-oriented perfectionism were unique predictors of health symptoms. The findings highlight the distinctions between the perfectionism and the Type A constructs, and support self-regulation models of depression and physical symptoms that include an emphasis on excessive perfectionistic standards and low self-efficacy. We discuss the need for preventive interventions designed for perfectionistic adolescents with low self-efficacy.     

Preference for situations involving effort, time pressure, and feedback in relation to type A behavior, locus of control, and test anxiety

Eighty subjects from an introductory psychology course rated the desirability of eight course structures that differed according to all combinations of the presence or absence of effort required for success, time pressure, and the provision of feedback. Subjects also completed questionnaire measures of the Type A behavior pattern, test anxiety, and external locus of control. Results showed that the Type A behavior pattern was negatively related to external locus of control and that externals tended to have higher test anxiety scores than internals. Multiple regression analyses that involved the personality variables and age and gender showed that the Type A variable predicted preference for course structures that involved effort and feedback and that external control predicted preference for course structures that were independent of effort and provided little feedback. Test anxiety and desirability ratings were positively correlated for the course structure that was not dependent on effort, had little time pressure, and had little feedback. The results were consistent with the view that individuals seek out and prefer situations that are consistent with their personality characteristics.     

The framingham Type A Scale: Cardiovascular and cognitive-behavioral responses to interpersonal challenge

Most of the primary measures of Type A behavior have been found to be associated with physiological reactivity to stressors, as well as coronary heart disease (CHD). While it does predict CHD, the Framingham Type A Scale (FTAS) has not been conclusively linked to physiological reactivity. Similarly, in contrast to other Type A measures, little is known concerning the cognitive behaviors associated with the FTAS in stressful situations. The present study was conducted to evaluate the cardiovascular and cognitive-behavioral responses to interpersonal challenge of Type A versus Type B subjects, as classified by the FTAS. Type A's evidenced increased systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity and a greater degree of negatively toned cognitive activity than did Type B's. The SBP findings are consistent with those obtained with other measures of Type A behavior, and with the hypothesis that neuroendocrine reactivity mediates the link between the behavior pattern and CHD. The somewhat unique cognitive-behavior findings, however, may reflect important psychological differences among the various Type A measures.Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, Philadelphia, 1984.     

Prevalence and sociodemographic variance of type A behavior in Finnish preadolescents, adolescents, and young adults

The prevalence and sociodemographic variance of Type A behavior was studied among 1,721 preadolescents, adolescents, and young adults in Finland. The AFMS questionnaire (Type A behavior questionnaire for the Finnish Multicenter Study), as self-rated and assessed by mothers, and the Hunter-Wolf A-B Rating Scale (HWolf) were used. There was considerable variation between measures: On the AFMS boys scored higher, whereas on the Hwolf girls scored higher. In contrast to earlier findings, Type A behavior was more prevalent among rural subjects than among urban subjects. Economic and occupational status of the family were of no importance. The notion that the Type A behavior pattern characterizes urban, middle-to upper-class males was not validated in this group of Finnish children and young adults.     

Type A behavior, family history of hypertension, and cardiovascular responsivity among black women

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of Type A behavior and family history of hypertension on cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress in a group of employed black women. Measures of heart rate and of systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were taken at rest, during a mental arithmetic task, and during the Type A Structured Interview (SI). Results indicated that the Type A behavior pattern was associated with SBP and DBP hyperresponsivity during the SI but not during mental arithmetic. Additionally, certain speech components of the Type A pattern, as well as features of the potential-for-hostility component, were also related to cardiovascular responses during the SI. Family history of hypertension did not influence the cardiovascular parameters either alone or in combination with Type A behavior. The results suggest that many of the cardiovascular response characteristics of the Type A pattern that have been observed in predominantly white samples also hold true for blacks. Replication of these findings with other subgroups of blacks, such as young females and middle-aged males, will help document the generality of these findings within the black population.     

Type D personality,but not Type A behavior pattern,is associated with coronary plaque vulnerability

Personality traits are associated with major adverse coronary events (MACE) in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the link between personality traits and intravascular morphology in CAD patients is poorly understood. This study investigated the relationship between personality traits, specifically Type A behavior pattern and Type D personality, and plaque vulnerability. After adjustment for demographic and clinical factors, multivariable regression analysis showed no association between Type A and optical coherence tomography indices. However, Type D personality was independently associated with lipid plaque, thin cap fibroatheroma (TCFA), and fibrous cap thickness. More specifically, negative affectivity of Type D was related to lipid plaque, TCFA and fibrous cap thickness, and social inhibition was associated with plaque rupture. Our results show that Type D personality was associated with plaque vulnerability, independent of clinical factors. Measurement of negative affectivity and social inhibition will increase our understanding of the progressive phase of the plaque vulnerability, which can contribute to the early identification of high risk patients and reduce the incidence of MACE.     

Examining the relationships among self-report measures of the Type A behavior pattern: the effects of dimensionality, measurement error, and differences in underlying constructs

The most widely used self-report measures of the Type A behavior pattern (TABP) are the Bortner scale, the Framingham scale, and the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS). Though high scores on each of these measures have been linked to the development of coronary heart disease, their intercorrelations are rather low, suggesting that they may reflect different aspects of TABP. This study indicates that the low correlations among the Bortner scale, the Framingham scale, and the JAS are due not only to differences in underlying constructs but also to measurement error and multidimensionality. These results also identify several psychometric problems, which raise serious questions regarding the use of these measures in TABP research. Suggestions for the development of new measures of TABP are offered.     

Achievement Goals,Physical Self‐Concept,and Social Physique Anxiety in a Physical Activity Context1

Three studies tested relations between self‐related constructs and approach and avoidance achievement goals in a health‐related physical activity context. Physical self‐concept was hypothesized to be positively related, and social physique anxiety to be negatively related, to approach goals in physical activity. Achievement goals were also expected to mediate relations between the self‐related constructs and behavior. Structural equation models supported the hypothesized pattern of effects in a physical activity context (Study 1). The model for physical activity was invariant across collectivistic and individualistic cultures (Study 2). Relations between physical self‐concept, social physique anxiety, and achievement goals were stronger among regular gym and fitness center users than among nonusers (Study 3). The findings are discussed in relation to achievement goal theory.     

The nomological validity of the Type A personality among employed adults

The nomological validity of the Type A behavior pattern was explored. The Structured Interview (SI) and a battery of personality trait, physical health, and strain measures were administered to an occupationally diverse sample of 568 workers. Ss were also monitored for physiological reactivity and recovery (blood pressure, heart rate, skin temperature, and electrodermal response) to the SI and a subsequent Stroop Color-Word Conflict Task. A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that SI scores can be factored into three distinct dimensions. There was considerable overlap in the patterns of personality traits that characterized the Type A components, but only a Hostility dimension was significantly related to physiological reactivity and recovery. The results have implications for distinguishing coronary-proneness from the more traditional Type A conceptualization.     

Relation of Type A behavior to performance and satisfaction among sales personnel

Many of the personal characteristics frequently associated with successful sales performance are very similar to behaviors which are a part of the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern. This study investigated the relationship between Type A behavior and sales performance, as well as job satisfaction, among a sample of 355 life insurance agents. No significant differences were found between Type A and B agents and three measures of sales performance and one measure of general job satisfaction. Type A behavior among the sample was associated with measures of stress and number of health complaints. Possible explanations for the lack of Type A-performance and Type A-satisfaction relationships are discussed as is the importance of the association with stress and health complaints.     

Component analysis of the type A coronary-prone behavior pattern in male and female college students

Two studies investigated the psychological dimensions encompassed by the Rosenman Structured Interview (SI) method of assessing the Type A behavior pattern. In Study 1, female students completed the SI and Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS). Factor analysis of the verbal stylistic and answer content components of the SI yielded a 5-factor solution, with one factor--Clinical Rating--accounting for most nonerror variance in Type A ratings. The remaining factors were derived from answer content and correlated more substantially with JAS Type A ratings than with SI Type A ratings. In Study 2, male and female college students completed the SI and JAS and a battery of questionnaires that tap trait dimensions implied by the conceptual definition of Type A. For both males and females, SI ratings of Type A could almost be completely predicted by scores on the Clinical Rating factor. For both sexes, content dimensions of the SI related to other measures of Type A and to Type A-consistent traits, whereas the Clinical Rating factor was only modestly associated with such traits. Moreover, sex differences were observed in the trait constellations composing SI and JAS definitions of Type A. These results suggest that a discrepancy exists between conceptual and operational definitions of the Type A pattern.     

Early affective antecedents of adult type A behavior

The early affective, apparently temperamental antecedents of Type A behavior were investigated in a Swedish longitudinal sample (N = 149). Four clusters of Type A items (describing irritability, hurried behavior, work achievement, and competitiveness) were regressed on maternal ratings of the child's poor appetite, sleep disturbances, liveliness, anger, and shyness, collected annually from infancy to adolescence. The child's liveliness, sociability, and poor appetite during infancy and childhood were positively related to the adult Type A irritability and hurried behavior clusters, as were the mother's liveliness, orderliness, and intelligence as rated by psychologists during the child's first 6 years. The two work-involvement clusters were predicted by interactive effects among shyness, poor appetite, and anger during adolescence but were unrelated to mother attributes. Sleep disturbances were only related to competitiveness and only in late adolescence. These findings indicate that the interrelated components of adult Type A behavior have contrasting developmental histories and that temperament-related constructs are important antecedents to the adult syndrome.     

Hardiness, type A behavior, and the stress-illness relation in working women

Hardiness has been proposed as a stress-resistance resource in maintaining health. This construct has been shown to act in conjunction with the Type A behavior pattern in affecting illness. In this study, we examined this relation in women (N = 82) with the use of the Structured Interview and the Jenkins Activity Survey to assess Type A behavior. As expected, there was a strong stress-illness association. However, there were no hardiness main effects nor interactions between stress, Type A behavior, and hardiness. Hardiness was significantly associated with age, education level, and marital status. No differences in hardiness composition were found between high stress/high illness and high stress/low illness groups. Only the Powerlessness scale of hardiness was related to illness. These results are discussed in comparison with other hardiness studies. Particular attention is focused on possible sex differences, and implications for future research are suggested.     

The cognitive failures questionnaire revisited: dimensions and correlates

The authors reexamined the factor structure of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (D. E. Broadbent, P. F. Cooper, P. Fitzgerald, & K. R. Parkes, 1982) and its correlates. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire was designed to assess a person's likelihood of committing an error in the completion of an everyday task. A principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded 4 internally consistent, interpretable factors. These factors were labeled Memory, Distractibility, Blunders, and (memory for) Names. This study lends partial support for the factor analytic solution proposed by L. K. Pollina, A. L. Greene, R. H. Tunick, and J. M. Puckett (1992). In addition, it extends previous findings by providing initial evidence for the construct validity of the factors established by correlating factor scores with measures of other related constructs (i.e., boredom proneness, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Type A behavior pattern).     

The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire Revisited: Dimensions and Correlates

The authors reexamined the factor structure of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (D. E. Broadbent, P. F. Cooper, P. Fitzgerald, & K. R. Parkes, 1982) and its correlates. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire was designed to assess a person's likelihood of committing an error in the completion of an everyday task. A principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded 4 internally consistent, interpretable factors. These factors were labeled Memory, Distractibility, Blunders, and (memory for) Names. This study lends partial support for the factor analytic solution proposed by L. K. Pollina, A. L. Greene, R. H. Tunick, and J. M. Puckett (1992). In addition, it extends previous findings by providing initial evidence for the construct validity of the factors established by correlating factor scores with measures of other related constructs (i.e., boredom proneness, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Type A behavior pattern).     

Bortner type A scores and basic emotions: aggression, distrustful, depression, and gregarious

We examined the correlations between scores on Bortner's scale and measures of aggression, distrustful, gregarious, and depression in 1,084 employees. Prospectively over 2 yr. we investigated the relationship of Type A behavior with cardiac mortality. Subjects classified as Type A had higher mean ratings on measures of aggression and distrustful than did persons classified as Type B. Mortality was lower in patients classified as reporting Type A behavior (12%) than in the patients classified as reporting Type B behavior (22%).     

Type A behavior, achievement striving, and a dysfunctional self-evaluation system

We conducted two experiments to examine the relations among characteristics of how Type A individuals strive for achievement, including goal achievement, self-evaluation, and psychological distress. We evaluated these relations as subjects performed two sequential general information tests. Experiment 1 indicated that achievement striving associated with the Type A behavior pattern is characterized by a tendency to set personal goals in excess of performance and is associated with a low probability of achieving goals. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that the achievement strategy Type A individuals adopted was associated with low self-evaluation of their actual performance. Furthermore, a pre- and postexperiment self-report questionnaire of psychological state suggested that failure to achieve personal goals was related to increased psychological distress. The results of our study suggest that unrealistically high performance standards and failure to achieve personal goals may be a mechanism that triggers the negative psychological states and performance dissatisfaction associated with the Type A behavior pattern. Our study also supports theoretical conceptualizations that excessive achievement striving can act as a potential motivational mechanism but can also have potential pathogenic consequences through misregulation of achievement expectancy and evaluation.     

Religion,Type A behavior,and health

In a study of air traffic controllers, religious differences are found in the way Type A behavior is associated with several health status indicators. Associations between the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) and physical illness incidence, health-promotive behavior, diastolic and systolic blood pressure, subjective distress and impulse control problems, and alcohol consumption are examined by religious attendance, religious affiliation, and change in affiliation. Findings confirm that Type A does not vary significantly by religion. However, there are several significant findings between Type A and various health indicators. Type A is associated with illness incidence, overall and more strongly in several religion, subgroups. Type A and alcohol consumption are related positively in Protestants and converts, and negatively in churchgoing Catholics. Type A is related to impulse control problems in churchgoing Protestants and to subjective distress in churchgoing Catholics. Finally, in individuals with weak or no religious ties, Type A is associated with lower blood pressure. This last finding suggests that in some people (for example, the irreligious or unchurched), the coronary-prone behavior pattern may have cardiovascular effects which are salutary in at least one respect.The authors wish to thank Dr. Kyriakos S. Markides and Laura A. Ray for their assistance with this study. Address requests for reprints to Dr. Levin at the Institute of Gerontology, 300 North Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.