A factor structure for the MMPI-A: replication with male delinquents

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) Structural Summary was developed as a means of simplifying the interpretation of the 69 scales and subscales of this test instrument by organizing findings around eight primary factor dimensions. The current study examined the scale-level factor structure of the MMPI-A in a large sample of 1,610 male juvenile delinquents to assess the potential usefulness of this factor structure in a delinquency population. In this attempt to replicate the MMPI-A scale-level factor structure identified by Archer, Belevich, and Elkins in the MMPI-A normative sample and by Archer and Krishnamurthy in a clinical sample, a correlation matrix of all MMPI-A scale raw scores was created for a principal factor analysis. Results from the factor analysis produced a seven-factor solution that was largely consistent with the dimensions of the MMPI-A Structural Summary. Results were also reported in terms of the frequency of elevations on Structural Summary dimensions, with particular evidence of the importance of the Immaturity factor in describing this male juvenile delinquent sample.     

The MMPI-2 With College Students

MMPI-2 responses of 515 male and 797 female college students from four universities were examined. College students were compared with the new MMPI-2 normative sample on the clinical and validity scales. The reliability of MMPI-2 scores of college students were compared with reliabilities of the MMPI-2 normative sample. The results indicated that college students respond to the MMPI-2 in a highly similar manner to the MMPI-2 normative sample. Mean score differences on the validity and clinical scales were within 1 to 3 T-score points on most scales, and the frequency distributions of the college students were highly similar to those of the MMPI-2 normative samples, Slight differences obtained on the Pt, Sc, and Ma scales may reflect the younger age of the college groups compared to the MMPI-2 normative groups. The MMPI-2 norms were shown to be appropriate for use with college subjects. Test-retest correlation coefficients obtained from college students who were administered the MMPI-2 on two occasions showed reliabilities comparable to those found for the MMPI-2 normative sample.     

An evaluation of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-a true response inconsistency (TRIN) scales

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) True Response Inconsistency (TRIN) scales are measures of acquiescence and non-acquiescence included among the standard validity scales on these instruments. The goals of this study were to evaluate the effectiveness of these scales in detecting varying degrees of acquiescence and non-acquiescence and to evaluate cutoff scores for clinical use. After the removal of invalid protocols from the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A normative samples, each normative sample was randomly divided in half. For each measure, one half of the normative sample served as a comparison group and the other half was modified with increasing degrees (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%) of randomly inserted true or false responses. The results for a 9.1% base rate of acquiescence or non-acquiescence provide support for TRIN cutoff scores at or near those presented in the MMPI-A and MMPI-2 manuals.     

MMPI-2 L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting: normative and desirable responding

Norms based on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) normative sample are provided for the L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting and defensiveness. Index scores produced by consistently desirable responding, which was guided by desirability ratings of the MMPI-2 items, also are provided and compared with scores produced by underreporting in other studies. The indexes correlate highly with other measures of underreporting in both normative and clinical samples. The L and K scales assess different types of underreporting and should be interpreted separately as well as in combination. The L scale can be elevated by undesirable responding or random responding in addition to desirable responding.     

Use of the MMPI-2 in American Indians: I. Comparability of the MMPI-2 between two tribes and with the MMPI-2 normative group

The comparability of the MMPI-2 in American Indians with the MMPI-2 normative group was investigated in a sample of 535 Southwestern and 297 Plains American Indian tribal members with contrasting sociocultural and historical origins. Both American Indian tribal groups had clinically significant higher T scores (> 5 T points) on 5 validity and clinical scales, 6 content scales, and 2 supplementary scales than did the MMPI-2 normative group. There were no significant differences between the 2 tribal groups on any of the MMPI-2 clinical, content, or supplementary scales. Matching members of both tribes with persons in the MMPI-2 normative group on the basis of age, gender, and education reduced the magnitude of the differences between the 2 groups on all of these scales, although the differences in T scores still exceeded 5 T points. It appears likely that the MMPI-2 differences of these 2 American Indian groups from the normative group may reflect their adverse historical, social, and economic conditions.     

Clinical validation of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory

The clinical validity of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI; F. M. Cheung, K. Leung, et al., 1996) was examined in 2 studies involving a group of 167 male prisoners in Hong Kong and a group of 339 psychiatric patients in China. Elevated scores on the clinical scales were obtained for the clinical samples. Logistic regression analyses confirmed that the CPAI scales were useful in differentiating between male prisoner and the Hong Kong male normative sample and between psychiatric patients and a random sample of normal adults in China. Multivariate analyses of variance results showed significant differences on the CPAI clinical scales and personality scales among subgroups of psychiatric patients with diagnoses of bipolar, schizophrenic, and neurotic disorders. The usefulness of an indigenous personality inventory is discussed.     

Parent-perceived child behavior problems: Comparison of normative and clinical factors of the Adelaide-Conners Parent Rating Scale

The Adelaide-Conners Parent Rating Scale (APRS), an instrument developed by studying a large, representative group of schoolchildren, was used with a group of psychiatry attenders. Multimethod factor analysis found satisfactory agreement between the factor structures of the clinical and the normative groups. The patterns of scores on the 12 APRS scales were also compared. Two higher-order factors (Conflict with the Environment and Conflict within the Self) were identified in the clinical sample as previously found in the normative group. Comparison of the factor solutions with previous empirical efforts to identify parent-perceived patterns of child behavior disorder showed that the APRS compares well with other instruments and supports the strategy of proceeding from the study of normative populations to the study of clinically defined groups.This work was supported in part by a grant from the Department of Health, Canberra.     

Japanese normative data for the Unhelpful Thoughts and Beliefs about Stuttering (UTBAS) Scales for adults who stutter

PurposeThis study reports Japanese normative data for the Unhelpful Thoughts and Beliefs about Stuttering (UTBAS) scales. We outline the translation process, and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Japanese version of the UTBAS scales.MethodsThe translation of the UTBAS scales into Japanese (UTBAS-J) was completed using the standard forward-backward translation process, and was administered to 130 Japanese adults who stutter. To validate the UTBAS-J scales, scores for the Japanese and Australian cohorts were compared. Spearman correlations were conducted between the UTBAS-J and the Modified Erickson Communication Attitude scale (S-24), the self-assessment scale of speech (SA scale), and age. The test-retest reliability and internal consistency of the UTBAS-J were assessed. Independent t-tests were conducted to evaluate the differences in the UTBAS-J scales according to gender, speech treatment experience, and stuttering self-help group participation experience.ResultsThe UTBAS-J showed good test-retest reliability, high internal consistency, and moderate to high significant correlations with S-24 and SA scale. A weak correlation was found between the UTBAS-J scales with age. No significant relationships were found between UTBAS-J scores, gender and speech treatment experience. However, those who participated in the stuttering self-help group demonstrated lower UTBAS-J scores than those who did not.ConclusionGiven the current scarcity of clinical assessment tools for adults who stutter in Japan, the UTBAS-J holds promise as an assessment tool and outcome measure for use in clinical and research environments.     

Type A Personality,Self-Control,and Vulnerability to Stress

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A; Butcher et al., 1992) was released in 1992 and has rapidly become the most widely used objective personality assessment instrument with adolescents. Although the MMPI-A reduced or eliminated several problems associated with the use of the original MMPI (Hathaway &; McKinley, 1943) with adolescents, the MMPI-A does produce a high frequency of within normal limits basic scale profiles for individuals with substantial psychopathology including adolescents in inpatient psychiatric settings. To better understand the reasons for this phenomenon, we compared the item endorsement frequencies for the MMPI-A normative sample with results from two adolescent clinical samples, and these results were contrasted to the item endorsement frequencies for the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, &; Kaemmer, 1989) normative sample and a clinical sample of adult psychiatric inpatients. Results showed that the MMPI-A contains a substantial number of items that do not show a significant difference in item endorsement frequency between normative and clinical samples. Furthermore, MMPI-A basic and content scales generally show a much lower percentage of effective items than do the corresponding scales for the MMPI-2. We discuss the findings in relation to the frequent occurrence of low range MMPI-A profiles in clinical samples and the potential usefulness of these results in future efforts to develop viable short forms for the MMPI-A.     

The effectiveness of MMPI-A items in discriminating between normative and clinical samples.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A; Butcher et al., 1992) was released in 1992 and has rapidly become the most widely used objective personality assessment instrument with adolescents. Although the MMPI-A reduced or eliminated several problems associated with the use of the original MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) with adolescents, the MMPI-A does produce a high frequency of within normal limits basic scale profiles for individuals with substantial psychopathology including adolescents in inpatient psychiatric settings. To better understand the reasons for this phenomenon, we compared the item endorsement frequencies for the MMPI-A normative sample with results from two adolescent clinical samples, and these results were contrasted to the item endorsement frequencies for the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) normative sample and a clinical sample of adult psychiatric inpatients. Results showed that the MMPI-A contains a substantial number of items that do not show a significant difference in item endorsement frequency between normative and clinical samples. Furthermore, MMPI-A basic and content scales generally show a much lower percentage of effective items than do the corresponding scales for the MMPI-2. We discuss the findings in relation to the frequent occurrence of low range MMPI-A profiles in clinical samples and the potential usefulness of these results in future efforts to develop viable short forms for the MMPI-A.     

Couples in marital distress: a study of personality factors as measured by the MMPI-2

This study examines the relationship between Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) measured personality characteristics and marital distress and provides empirical validation for using the MMPI-2 with a marital therapy population. Studied were 150 couples in marital therapy and 841 normal couples who participated in the MMPI-2 restandardization study. The MMPI-2, a biographical form, a partner rating form, and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) were administered to all couples. The marital counseling group resembled previous marital counseling samples studied with the MMPI and scored significantly higher than the normative sample on several MMPI-2 scales. Relationships between the DAS and MMPI-2 clinical and content scale scores are reported. The Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) clinical scale and Family Problems (FAM) content scale were the most powerful group discriminators and strongest correlates of the DAS; their use as indices of marital distress is tested. The meaning of Pd as an index in assessing personality factors in marital distress is explored.     

Developmental Changes in Content of Movement Responses

This study examines the relationship between Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) measured personality characteristics and marital distress and provides empirical validation for using the MMPI-2 with a marital therapy population. Studied were 150 couples in marital therapy and 841 normal couples who participated in the MMPI-2 restandardization study. The MMPI-2, a biographical form, a partner rating form, and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) were administered to all couples. The marital counseling group resembled previous marital counseling samples studied with the MMPI and scored significantly higher than the normative sample on several MMPI-2 scales. Relationships between the DAS and MMPI-2 clinical and content scale scores are reported. The Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) clinical scale and Family Problems (FAM) content scale were the most powerful group discriminators and strongest correlates of the DAS; their use as indices of marital distress is tested. The meaning of Pd as an index in assessing personality factors in marital distress is explored.     

Percentile Norms and Accompanying Interval Estimates from an Australian General Adult Population Sample for Self‐Report Mood Scales (BAI,BDI, CRSD,CES‐D,DASS, DASS‐21, STAI‐X,STAI‐Y,SRDS, and SRAS)

Despite their widespread use, many self‐report mood scales have very limited normative data. To rectify this, Crawford et al. have recently provided percentile norms for a series of self‐report scales. The present study aimed to extend the work of Crawford et al. by providing percentile norms for additional mood scales based on samples drawn from the general Australian adult population. Participants completed a series of self‐report mood scales. The resultant normative data were incorporated into a computer programme that provides point and interval estimates of the percentile ranks corresponding to raw scores for each of the scales. The programme can be used to obtain point and interval estimates of the percentile ranks of an individual's raw scores on the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Carroll Rating Scale for Depression, the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Rating Scale for Depression, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS), the short‐form version of the DASS (DASS‐21), the Self‐rating Scale for Anxiety, the Self‐rating Scale for Depression, the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), form X, and the STAI, form Y, based on normative sample sizes ranging from 497 to 769. The interval estimates can be obtained using either classical or Bayesian methods as preferred. The programme (which can be downloaded at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/~psy086/dept/MoodScore_Aus.htm ) provides a convenient and reliable means of obtaining the percentile ranks of individuals' raw scores on self‐report mood scales.     

Personality Assessment Inventory profiles of deployed combat troops: an empirical investigation of normative performance

The present study examined the normative scores and psychometric properties of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) within a non-treatment-seeking sample of soldiers deployed to combat zones in Iraq, compared with a sample of community adults matched with respect to age and gender. Results indicate the scores and properties of the PAI scales were generally quite similar in the Iraq and community samples, with modest differences emerging on only 3 subscales addressing antisocial behavior, issues with close relationships, and interpersonal vigilance. These results suggest that standard normative interpretation of PAI scales is appropriate even when the instrument is administered in a combat zone. In comparison with prior research, the results may suggest that documented mental health issues among combat veterans, when present, may be particularly likely to emerge postdeployment.     

Assessing differences in chemically dependent adolescent males using the Child Behavior Checklist

A study was conducted with 59 chemically dependent (CD) male adolescents (ages 13 to 16) using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBC). The CD sample was compared to a normative group on four adaptive behavior scales and twelve behavior problem scales, and was found to be significantly different on all measures. The CD sample was also compared to a general clinical group on nine behavior problem scales, and was found to score significantly higher on scales measuring delinquent and uncommunicative behaviors, and significantly lower on scales measuring immature and hostile-withdrawn behaviors. Summary profile types were compared with the clinical population and a separate assaultive/aggressive population. More of the CD population fit an uncommunicative/delinquent profile type and relatively fewer fit schizoid and immature/aggressive profile types as compared to the two other groups. The CBC differentiated subgroups in the CD sample with respect to completion of treatment and type of drug used, but not motivation for treatment at admission.     

Ipsative and Normative Scales in Adjectival Measurement of Personality: Problems of Bias and Discrepancy

887 respondents completed ipsative and normative versions of the PAL-TOPAS personality questionnaire. Data were analysed to test for (1) systematic bias in scores associated with the two response formats and (2) predictors of the magnitude of the discrepancy in the individual's ipsative and normative scores. Discrepancy was assessed for both item responses and scale scores. Sources of biases investigated included ipsative scaling artifact, extremeness of scores on the normative scales and response variability. Results showed that systematic bias in scale scores and magnitude of discrepancy were predicted by different factors. One source of systematic bias was associated with ipsative scaling artifact: the ipsative scales measure both the scale itself and rejection of other alternatives. A second source of systematic bias was acquiescence in response to normative items. A confirmatory factor analysis showed that a good but imperfect fit to the data may be obtained by constructing a structural model of the inter-relationship between normative and ipsative scores which accommodates both sources of bias. The strongest influence on discrepancy in scale scores was extremeness of normative scoring, associated with a bias towards either general acceptance or rejection of trait adjectives. It is concluded that both normative and ipsative response formats have limitations, and it may often be desirable to assess both.     

Psychometric evaluation of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical scales in two Dutch samples

In this article, we evaluate internal validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) scales in the Dutch MMPI-2 normative sample (N = 1,244) and a Dutch outpatient psychiatric sample (N = 1,066). We pay special attention to a critique regarding construct drift of RC3 and the redundancy of the RC scales with existing MMPI-2 scales. The results indicate that the RC scales in both samples show comparable or better internal consistencies than the Clinical scales. Also, in both samples, the RC scales demonstrate lower scale-level intercorrelations than the Clinical scales. As to the structural characteristics, principal component analysis of the RC scales provided a clearer pattern than an analysis of the Clinical scales. Furthermore, mean raw scores on the RC scales for men in the Dutch normative sample corresponded highly with those in the U.S. normative sample except for RC2 and RC4. Less correspondence was found for women. Overall, we conclude that the RC scales show satisfactory reliability and promising internal validity in our Dutch samples. We suggest that U.S. validation studies on the RC scales may be generalized to the Dutch-language version of the MMPI-2 RC scales.     

A comparison of two interpretive approaches for the MMPI--A Structural Summary

We undertook this study to provide empirically derived interpretative recommendations for the MMPI-A Structural Summary through an evaluation of factor elevation patterns. We examined the frequency of single-factor, two-factor, and multifactor elevations in a clinical sample of 363 adolescents receiving inpatient, outpatient, or residential treatment. Two methods of determining factor elevation (a simple majority of scales and subscales within a specific factor with T-score elevations at critical level, versus the mean T score generated by all the scales and subscales for each factor) yielded comparable findings concerning the frequency of factor elevation, permitting reliance on the former, easier-to-use method to define elevation. The most salient two-factor co-elevations were the 3-7 (Disinhibition-Familial Alienation), 2-8 (Immaturity-Psychoticism), 1-5 (General Maladjustment-Health Concerns), and 2-7 (Immaturity-Familial Alienation) patterns. This study also examined whether factor pattern elevations varied as a function of age, gender, or diagnosis. Data analyses revealed no differences between younger (ages 13-14) and older (ages 15-18) adolescents on factor elevation as defined by the first criterion. However, significant differences were found between boys and girls on Factors 3 (Disinhibition) and 5 (Health Concerns). Results also indicated that a larger proportion of depressed adolescents obtained factor elevations on Factors 4 (Social Discomfort) and 5 (Health Concerns) compared to adolescents with conduct disorder diagnoses and other diagnoses. The findings of this study are discussed with reference to recommended procedures for using the Structural Summary in clinical assessment practice.     

MMPI-2 profile code types and measurement error

We studied simulated MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) code type stability and change expected with measurement error for 12 MMPI-2 well-defined mean code type profiles. Profile scores for the 2 scales defining the code type were systematically varied to represent target code type profiles at 9 different levels of T-score profile definition. We randomly generated samples of 50 simulated, estimated true score profiles at each level of profile definition for each code type around the estimated true scores for each scale at each level of profile definition. Two sets of simulated profiles were developed. The first simulation was based on the reported means, test-retest reliabilities, and the standard errors of measurement for the MMPI-2 normative group. The second simulation was based on the means, standard deviations, and estimated retest stability for a clinical group of psychiatric patients. We calculated frequencies and percentages of simulated profiles with the highest estimated true scores on the same 2 scales as the original code type profile. Percentages of simulated profiles with the same 2 highest scales as the original code type profiles increased from 27% to 37% for the 3-point level of definition, 37% to 49% for the 5-point definition, 46% to 61% for 7-point definition, 63% to 78% for 10-point definition, 78% to 89% for 13-point definition, 83% to 93% for 15-point definition, and greater than 90% for profile definition greater than 15 points.     

The Yale Children''s Inventory—A screening tool for attention deficits and related disorders. Normative data for boys

Norwegian populated-based normative data on the Yale Children's Inventory (YCI) were provided for boys. All parents of boys aged 8 through 11 years in the county of Hammerfest received the YCI, and 77% responded. Mean scores on the YCI scales attention, activity, tractability, and fine motor were significantly lower in the Norwegian sample compared to the US normative data. Factor analysis of the 40 scale items yielded factors that corresponded generally well to the YCI scale constructs derived from US samples. We conclude that the scale constructs of the YCI seem to be transferable across these two cultures, but that restandardization is warranted. Further research is needed to establish cut-off values for clinical screening purposes. The Yale Children's Inventory has the potential to become a valuable screening tool for behavioral problems at school-age.