Battered Women

SUMMARY

This review of research findings on woman battering reveals how research has played a major role in changing social policy and challenging common myths and stereotypes. The earliest literature contained the ideas of a few psychotherapists who viewed woman battering as a rare phenomenon that involved masochistic women and sadistic men, which led to the myth of psychopathology as the mediating factor. Research following the birth of the battered women's movement destroyed this and some subsequent myths. It led to changes in medical practitioners' attitudes toward battered women patients and law enforcement's reaction to battering victims and their abusers. It also revealed important facts about the courts' handling of abusers and their victims and about violent relationships that result in homicide. The myth that children living in violent households are unharmed has been soundly discredited, yet despite these findings, many battered women continue to face serious difficulties when they attempt to divorce their abusers and obtain custody of their children. Other myths have been exposed by researchers on the basis of their findings. However, once ideas gain popular public acceptance, they tend to continue to exert influence. Nevertheless, positive changes have occurred in the entire spectrum of medical, legal, and social services with which battered women must interface. The research findings reviewed here help highlight current needs and suggest future directions.     

Pregnant and Parenting Battered Women Speak Out about their Relationships and Challenges

Domestic violence is one of the leading health risks to women in the United States. Abuse during pregnancy increases the negative health consequences for mothers and their unborn children. This article presents survey and open-ended interview data from participants in an innovative program for pregnant and parenting battered women and examines the health status of mothers and newborns, their experience and perception of both physical and nonphysical abuse, and their challenges to prenatal care.     

The Role of PTSD and Length of Shelter Stay in Battered Women's Severity of Reabuse after Leaving Shelter

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with significant morbidity, including high rates of reabuse even after women have taken steps to achieve safety. This study evaluated the roles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity and length of shelter stay in the severity of reabuse in 103 IPV victims over a six-month period after leaving a battered women's shelter. Results suggest that the length of shelter stay is inversely related to reabuse severity after leaving shelter. Additionally, more severe PTSD symptoms on shelter exit were associated with greater reabuse severity after leaving shelter. Furthermore, additional study findings support prior research suggesting that the emotional numbing symptoms of PTSD are a significant risk factor for reabuse among IPV victims after leaving shelter.     

Using the ESID Model to Reduce Intimate Male Violence Against Women

Described how the Experimental Social Innovation and Dissemination (ESID) model was successfully used to reduce intimate male violence against women. Following the principles of ESID, the experimental social innovation involved providing trained paraprofessional advocates to work one-on-one with women who had been assaulted by partners or ex-partners. Advocates worked with women for 10 weeks, assisting them in obtaining needed community resources such as legal assistance, housing, education, and employment. Two hundred seventy eight women who had exited a domestic violence shelter program were randomly assigned to the experimental or control condition. Participants were interviewed 6 times over a period of 2 years: pre- and postintervention (10 weeks later), and at 6, 12, 18, and 24-month follow-up. Women who received the intervention reported less violence over time as well as higher social support and perceived quality of life. The relevance of the ESID model in addressing this as well as other significant social problems is discussed.     

Battered Woman Syndrome Questionnaire (BWSQ) Subscales: Development,Reliability, and Validity

ABSTRACT

The current study describes the development and evaluation of the reliability and validity of four components of a comprehensive assessment designed for the purpose of identifying women who manifest symptoms due to an intimate partner violence (IPV) relationship: The Battered Woman Syndrome Questionnaire (BWSQ). More specifically, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the factor structure, validity, temporal stability and internal consistency of four instruments for measuring current functioning of IPV survivors; (a) Interpersonal relationship (BWSQ-IR), (b) Sexual Dysfunction (BWSQ-SD), (c) Body Image (BWSQ-BI), and (d) Post-Traumatic Stress Checklist (BWSQ-PTSC). Overall, results indicate the BWSQ subscales have good temporal stability and internal consistency. Exploratory factor analysis of the four subscales indicate that each has a unidimensional factor structure. Internal consistency was high for each of the subscales. A two-way mixed effects model, intraclass correlation was used to demonstrate a high degree of test-retest reliability. Convergent and discriminant validity was demonstrated by comparing each subscale with the Revised Adult Attachment Scale (AAS), the Derogatis Interview of Sexual Functioning – Sexual Response (DISF-SR), the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS) and the Trauma Symptom Inventory (TSI). The four instruments demonstrate sound psychometric properties as standalone measures as well as subscales of the BWSQ.     

Social Workers and Battered Women: The Need to Study Client Violence in the Domestic Violence Field

Domestic violence is a significant issue for the United States and internationally. Although many social workers may desire to work in the domestic violence field, such work is far more difficult and challenging than many social workers would expect. In fact, many domestic violence workers are abused by their clients or their clients' family members in the course of their work. The purpose of this article is to clarify why examining client violence toward workers in the domestic violence field is critically important, describe the current state of the research, and discuss recommendations for future research in this area.     

The Importance of Community in a Feminist Analysis of Domestic Violence among American Indians

There are over 500 native communities in the United States alone. Although popular conceptions in the majority culture commonly refer to these as a single American Indian group, native communities are in fact extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Issues of gender, class, and power are discussed from a feminist perspective with an emphasis on the diversity among native communities. Available evidence, while sketchy, suggests that male authority, male restrictiveness, and socioeconomic stress are associated with violence, but that the levels of these factors vary widely across native groups. For example, some native tribes practice matrilineal descent while others are patrilineal. This diversity has far-reaching implications for the community context in which domestic violence occurs. An approach that integrates both feminist and community approaches seems best suited to address the problem of domestic violence in native North America.     

Research Concerning Children of Battered Women

SUMMARY

Although the negative impact on children exposed to spouse abuse is well documented, little empirical research is available to guide clinical interventions. A brief review of the research literature describing these detrimental influences on children's adjustment is presented. Factors are discussed which mediate the consequences for children exposed to spouse abuse. These variables include those that are child-related as well as factors which are situational/contextual. Next, several theoretical/conceptual models are presented to assist with an understanding of how this impact on youngsters' psychological and emotional functioning takes place. These models suggest both direct and indirect mechanisms of influence. Finally, recommendations regarding clinical interventions are delineated based on these models as well as the available literature on the treatment of children of battered women. Suggestions related to appropriate types of treatment, including symptom-and mechanism-specific interventions, are made.     

The Process Through Which an Advocacy Intervention Resulted in Positive Change for Battered Women Over Time

A prior experimental evaluation of a community-based advocacy program for women with abusive partners demonstrated positive change in the lives of women even 2 years postintervention (C. M. Sullivan & D. I. Bybee, 1999). The current study explored the complex mediational process through which this change occurred, using longitudinal structural equation modeling and formal tests of mediation. As hypothesized, the advocacy intervention first resulted in women successfully obtaining desired community resources and increasing their social support, which enhanced their overall quality of life. This improvement in well-being appeared to serve as a protective factor from subsequent abuse, as women who received the intervention were significantly less likely to be abused at 2-year follow-up compared with women in the control condition. Increased quality of life completely mediated the impact of the advocacy intervention on later reabuse. Discussion places advocacy for women in the context of other efforts that are needed to build an effective community response to preventing intimate violence against women.     

Battered women venerating a vicious Virgin: Reconsidering Marianismo at a Bolivian pilgrimage shrine

Scholarly literature on domestic violence in Latin America often relates it to machismo and marianismo. Within this gender paradigm, women are understood to embrace the values of the Virgin Mary as a passive submissive role model. However, these studies omit facts relating to the actual role of the Virgin in daily practices. This article investigates whether women indeed view Mary as encouraging them to passively accept gender-related suffering by relating Bolivian women's experiences of domestic violence to their daily interpretations of the Virgin of Urkupiña in Quillacollo, Bolivia. We have found that the influences of religious syncretism have been largely ignored. In daily religious experiences of battered women the Virgin of Urkupiña's association with Pachamama is of great importance. We argue that women do not accept their situation in a marianistic way. Rather, rage is a central concept in their religious experiences. As their economical, social and physical means are limited, women draw on spiritual powers, among which is the Virgin of Urkupiña. The Virgin of Urkupiña is not only venerated for her capacity to endure suffering, but also as a powerful goddess of vengeance.     

The Blameworthy Victim: Domestic Violence Myths and the Criminalization of Victimhood

Prior research shows that individual perceptions of victims play an integral role in the societal response to domestic violence, as well as victims' responses to their own victimization. However, little research has specifically examined individual perceptions of domestic violence victims who remain in abusive relationships. This study begins to fill the void in the literature by examining college students' attitudes toward battered women. Specifically, the study considers whether students adhere to common myths associated with battering and if myths lead college students to view domestic violence victims as “blameworthy.” The study relies on a sample of 370 university students attending a large Southern metropolitan university. Findings indicate that students moderately support domestic violence myths and that myth promotion is associated with support for increased criminal justice penalties such as prosecution of mothers and approval of delayed police response in cases of repeat victimization. Implications for policy, theory, and practice are provided.     

Psychosocial Variables Associated With Verbal Abuse as a Form of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in a Spanish Sample

This article aims to analyze psychosocial variables associated with verbal abuse in women who suffer intimate partner violence. The following factors, taken from the scientific literature, were examined: social and family isolation; low self-esteem; an excess of empathy for the abuser; submission; psychological dependence on the abuser; and, self-blame as internal attribution for the cause of abuse. Our results show that low self-esteem has a direct relationship with verbal abuse. Additionally, family (including in-laws) and social (from friends, workmates, and neighbors), isolation are significantly and positively related to verbal abuse. The results of our study raise questions about the adoption of gender roles and their consequences when stereotyped tendencies are acquired. Implications, as well as ideas future research, are discussed.     

Applying Motivational Interviewing in a Domestic Violence Shelter: A Pilot Study Evaluating the Training of Shelter Staff

ABSTRACT

This pilot study examined the use of motivational interviewing (MI) with 20 women receiving services at a domestic violence shelter. The experimental group (n = 10) received regular treatment services (RTS) from shelter counselors who were trained in MI; the control group (n = 10) received RTS only. Fisher's exact test showed that participants who received MI-enhanced RTS were significantly more motivated for change (p = .029), as measured through a dichotomous readiness for change motivational variable on the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment (URICA; Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, &; Addiction Research Division, 1996 Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, &; Addiction Research Division. 1996. University of Rhode Island Change Instrument (URICA) Scale, Albuquerque, NM: Author.  [Google Scholar]). Findings suggest that MI can be helpful in increasing the readiness for change in domestic violence survivors who contemplate leaving abusive relationships.     

Women Court-Ordered for Domestic Violence: Improvements in Depression

A quasi-experimental design was employed to compare depression at intake and completion of a sample of primarily Latina women court-ordered to a batterer intervention program. Data were derived from the intake assessments of 112 women over 24 months. Overwhelmingly, women reported being abused by their current and former partners. Approximately 58% of the women in this sample were depressed at intake. When culturally competent, gender-appropriate treatment is given to court-ordered women, depression symptomatology may decrease to levels of normal functioning. Further research is needed to understand court-ordered women as well as how to meet their unique needs.     

Association of intimate partner violence with sociodemographic factors in married women: a population-based study in Iran

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a neglected public health issue in Iran. This study was conducted among married women residing in urban Rasht (northern Iran), to estimate the prevalence and frequency of different forms of IPV from husband and their associations with socio-demographic factors. We carried out a population-based cross-sectional survey with cluster sampling design from February to October 2015. The samples consisted of married women aged ≥ 18 years with total household in Rasht city (north Iran) as the sample frame. We administered the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2) to estimate prevalence of past-year IPV. Of 2091 women, 57.1% had suffered psychological aggression, 27.6% physical abuse, 26.6% sexual abuse, and 6.9% injury. A significant association with IPV was found for women with, age ≤ 40 years, unemployed, low education, husband’s addiction and rented-householders. Women who experienced physical abuse, had less age at marriage than women without violence. Also women with sexual coercion had less length of marriage than other non-abused women. On logistic regression, the strongest predictor of psychological, physical and sexual abuse was unemployment of spouse, whereas for injury it was low educational level (<12 years) of women. Our findings suggest that risk of IPV is high in our population. There is an obvious need of preventive and treatment activities. Our findings point at that various forms of abuse are different from each other in terms of differing characteristics of the perpetrators and it might be that also different strategies are needed to reduce and prevent these violence. Confirmation by further research is needed.     

Abused Women in South Africa who Kill their Intimate Male Partners: A Psychological Exploration

The aim of this study was to explore psychological risk factors that may precipitate the murder of a partner by an abused woman. In this article, the authors use multiple case studies and interviews with three women incarcerated for the murder of their partners. Four themes relating to intimate partner violence emerged from the interviews: 1) post-traumatic stress disorder, 2) coercive control, 3) substance abuse and 4) interrelational conflict. The study indicates psychological factors that may precipitate the murder of an intimate partner that should be taken into account when counselling abused women.     

Health consequences of intimate partner violence against married women: a population-based study in northern Iran

The effects of different types of intimate partner violence (IPV) on mental health are understudied. The aim of this study was to analyse the association between women’s mental health and physical, psychological and sexual IPV. We invited subjects of a population-based survey conducted in 2015 in Rasht, Iran, on IPV against women to complete the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). The present research study is a secondary study based on these data and archival data from the 2015 study. For analysis, multivariate analysis of covariance was used. Additionally, predictors of IPV were evaluated using linear regression. A total of 2091 married women were surveyed. The participants were divided into abused women (n = 512, 24.5%) and non-abused women (n = 1579, 75.5%). The pattern of IPV among our patients showed more instances of psychological aggression than physical assault, sexual coercion or injury. Our results show that the non-psychotic psychiatric disorders of the victims were significantly impaired in all aspects, including somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction, and depression. Except social dysfunction, the psychological and sexual abuse were significant predictors of other aspects of mental health. Our findings suggest that risk of IPV is high in this population. They also indicate that various forms of abuse are different from each other in terms of predicting a victim’s mental health. Different strategies may be required to reduce and prevent this violence. Additional research is needed to confirm and expand upon our findings.     

Family of Origin Violence Predictors of IPV by Two Types of Male Offenders

The aim of this study was to determine the role of family of origin violence in predicting intimate partner violence (IPV). Male participants were divided into generally offending and family-only groups according to whether their violence occurred exclusively within intimate partner and family contexts or toward others outside the family as well. Results showed that exposure to family of origin violence affected IPV differently between the two groups of offenders. For generally offending offenders, exposure to family of origin violence significantly predicted IPV above and beyond demographic factors, alcohol and drug use, and bidirectional aggression. For family-only offenders, witnessing father-initiated violence toward the mother had a significant influence on their violent behavior toward their intimate partners. Clinical implications of these findings are addressed.     

An Ecological Analysis of Batterer Intervention Program Standards

Summary

Many states and local jurisdictions have drafted and implemented standards for batterer intervention programs. This article first presents a review of the arguments for and against the current standards. The author argues that the extant empirical research on batterer intervention is, at best, a limited source of knowledge for setting standards. The author then uses Bronfenbrenner's (1972, 1975) ecological framework to analyze existing standards, and to guide recommendations for future research on batterer intervention.     

Comparing Quality of Life Instruments in a Population of Abused Women

The SF-36 Health Survey and the WHO Quality of Life Index—BREF (WHOQOL-BREF) were used to study quality of life among women who had experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). The aim was to determine how these instruments correlated with each other and with physical and psychological IPV, in order to find the best instrument to use. IPV was measured using the Severity of Violence against Women Scale (SVAWS) and the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI). A self-administrated questionnaire was given to women able to understand Norwegian who were staying at a women’s shelter in Norway for more than 1 week. 87 of 212 women asked to participate completed the questionnaire. The physical acts of violence in SVAWS correlated significantly (P<0.001) with both the general health and bodily pain dimensions in SF-36 and global overall health (OH) in WHOQOL-BREF. Most correlations between WHOQOL-BREF and SF-36 were moderate. The WHOQOL-BREF domains explained 46% of the variance in OH and 40% of the variance in the global overall quality of life (OQOL). The SF-36 domains explained 66% of the variance in OH and 27% of OQOL. The mean WHOQOL-BREF and SF-36 scores were all low. The SF-36 correlated better with physical and psychological IPV in this population than the WHOQOL-BREF. The significant correlations between the OH, general health and bodily pain domains and acts of violence show the importance of including questions concerning bodily symptoms in determining the quality of life in a population of abused women.