The effects of cognitive demand upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The present study explored the effects of cognitive demand upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills. Both children and adults were tested on a measure of short-term memory and three measures of counting span, which varied in cognitive demand. When statistically controlling for short-term memory and the speed of counting operations, the more demanding the counting-span task, the closer its relationship with cognitive skills. The results are discussed in terms of practical and theoretical implications for working memory research.     

The effects of cognitive demand upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The present study explored the effects of cognitive demand upon relationships between working memory and cognitive skills. Both children and adults were tested on a measure of short-term memory and three measures of counting span, which varied in cognitive demand. When statistically controlling for short-term memory and the speed of counting operations, the more demanding the counting-span task, the closer its relationship with cognitive skills. The results are discussed in terms of practical and theoretical implications for working memory research.     

The influence of strategies on relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The aim of this study was to test the effect of administration method on relationships between working memory span tasks and cognitive skills. Participants completed both participant-administered and experimenter-administered working memory measures in both verbal and visuospatial domains. Although the tasks were equally reliable, the additional time taken to implement strategies in the participant-administered tasks in the verbal domain reduced the correlations between working memory and reading comprehension and arithmetic. These findings did not extend to a visuospatial working memory measure, for which there was no significant difference between the participant-administered and experimenter-administered tasks in terms of their relationships with comprehension and arithmetic. However, performance on experimenter-administered working memory tasks in both verbal and visuospatial domains predicted unique variance in comprehension and arithmetic while controlling for scores on the participant-administered tasks. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for working memory research.     

The influence of strategies on relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The aim of this study was to test the effect of administration method on relationships between working memory span tasks and cognitive skills. Participants completed both participant-administered and experimenter-administered working memory measures in both verbal and visuospatial domains. Although the tasks were equally reliable, the additional time taken to implement strategies in the participant-administered tasks in the verbal domain reduced the correlations between working memory and reading comprehension and arithmetic. These findings did not extend to a visuospatial working memory measure, for which there was no significant difference between the participant-administered and experimenter-administered tasks in terms of their relationships with comprehension and arithmetic. However, performance on experimenter-administered working memory tasks in both verbal and visuospatial domains predicted unique variance in comprehension and arithmetic while controlling for scores on the participant-administered tasks. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for working memory research.     

Correlation between general factors for personality and cognitive skills in the National Merit twin sample

General factors of personality (based on the California Psychological Inventory) and cognitive skill (the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test selection score) were correlated .284 in a sample of 490 monozygotic and 317 dizygotic twin pairs. The correlation was partitioned into genetic, and shared and unshared environmental sources: approximately 39%, 50% and 11%, respectively. The results offered some support to a theory that such a correlation may reflect evolutionary trends, although questions remained about the role of nonadditive genetic variance and the nature of the selection involved.     

The acquisition of robust and flexible cognitive skills

The authors introduce a model of skill acquisition that incorporates elements of both traditional models and models based on embedded cognition by striking a balance between top-down and bottom-up control. A knowledge representation is used in which pre- and postconditions are attached to actions. This model captures improved performance due to learning not only in terms of shorter solution times and lower error rates during the task but also in an increased flexibility to solve similar problems and robustness against unexpected events. In 3 experiments using a complex aviation task, the authors contrasted instructions that explicitly stated pre- and postconditions with conventional instructions that did not. The instructions with pre- and postconditions led to better and more robust performance than other instructions, especially on problems that required transfer. The parameters of the model were estimated to obtain a quantitative fit of the results of Experiment 1, which was then successfully used to predict the results of Experiments 2 and 3.     

Improving cognitive search skills in resistant hypnotic subjects

Subjects who were resistant (n = 20) and susceptible (n = 20) to hypnotic suggestion were asked to find the letter Z in an array of other straight-form letters. Susceptibles found the letter more quickly than resistants, and this superiority appeared to be related to their use of a more efficient search strategy. When resistants were taught this strategy, their performance was not significantly different from that of susceptibles. Implications of these results for teaching search strategies are discussed.     

Preventing adolescent pregnancy with social and cognitive skills

A 15-session sex education program was delivered by teachers to 586 10th graders using techniques based on social learning theory, including modeling, in-class and out-of-class practice of skills for abstaining from sexual intercourse, and for contraception. Knowledge about reproduction and birth control, intentions to use skills to avoid pregnancy, and communication with parents about pregnancy prevention were significantly greater at posttest and 6-month follow-up for the trained group than for the control group. Members of the trained group tended to use birth control more often, especially those who started to have sexual intercourse subsequent to the program. No differences in the frequency of sexual intercourse, pregnancy scares, or pregnancies were found. Satisfaction with the program was high. Although skill training by itself may not be sufficient to significantly prevent pregnancies, this program offers promise of being a useful component of combined school, home, and community activities to prevent pregnancy.     

Team effectiveness: beyond skills and cognitive ability.

On the basis of job analysis results, the validity of using measures of general cognitive ability, job-specific skills, and personality traits jointly at both the individual level and the group level to predict the performance of 79 four-person, human resource work teams was evaluated. Team member trait and job skill scores were aggregated with a conjunctive model of task performance. At the individual level of analysis, measures of personality (i.e., Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) predicted peer ratings of team member performance beyond measures of job-specific skills and general cognitive ability. Similarly, at the group level of analysis, both Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted supervisor ratings of work team performance, objective measures of work team accuracy, and work completed. At both the individual and group levels, the trait of Agreeableness predicted Interpersonal Skills.     

Executive function in children with high and low attentional skills: Correspondences between behavioural and cognitive profiles

Cognitive performance was compared between two groups of typically developing children, who had been observed and rated as differing significantly in their attentional skills at school. The participants were 24 8‐ and 9‐year‐old children scoring poorly relative to peers, on a classroom observation scale and teacher rating scale for attention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity [low‐attentional skills (LAS) group] and 24 sex‐ and age‐matched children scoring at a high level compared to peers [high‐attentional skills (HAS) group]. The two groups were compared on a series of cognitive tasks to assess executive function (EF). The LAS group performed within the typical range yet at a significantly lower level than the HAS group on the majority of the EF tasks administered, namely working memory and inhibition measures, even though there were no significant differences between the groups on a measure of intellectual ability. Working memory measures followed by measures of inhibition emerged as the best predictors of group membership. These findings provide empirical evidence that there are individual differences in attentional skills. Specifically, that there is a relationship between behavioural inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and cognitive performance on working memory and inhibitory control tasks.     

Advances in the assessment of cognitive skills using computer-based measurement

The impact of technology in the field of intellectual assessment has, for the most part, been limited to computerized administration and scoring. Anderson’s (2001) theory of intelligence suggests that performance on traditional IQ measures is acquired via two main routes, thinking and dedicated processing systems known as modules. Empirical data used to support this relationship between the speed of basic processing and intellectual functioning have been evidenced primarily by correlations between measures of general intelligence and measures of inspection time (IT). These IT measures allow individuals to make a forced choice discrimination task without a motor component. Because only the time used to cognitively solve the problem is recorded, these responses typically occur in milliseconds. Many theorists (e.g., Burns & Nettelbeck, 2002; Deary, 2000; Jensen, 2006) consider IT to be a more “pure” measure of intelligence, because the influences of verbal skills, memory, and socialization are minimized and results are therefore considered to be more culture-fair. Until relatively recently, IT measurement was restricted to complex and expensive specialized laboratory equipment. This article describes the theoretical background and developmental process of a computer-based IT measure that is easily adaptable to accommodate the needs of the researcher.     

Expert-novice differences in cognitive and execution skills during tennis competition

This study deals with decision and execution behavior of tennis players during competition. The study is based on the expert-novice paradigm and aims to identify differences between both groups in the decision-making and execution variables in serve and shot actions in tennis. Six expert players (elite Spanish tennis players) and six novice players (grade school tennis players) took part in this study. To carry out this study, the observation protocol defined by McPherson and Thomas in 1989, in which control, decision-making and execution variables were included, was used, where it was applied to the performance of the tennis player in a real match situation. In the analysis, significant differences between experts and novices in decision-making and execution variables are found wherein it can be observed that experts display a greater ability to make the appropriate decisions, selecting the most tactical responses to put pressure on the opponent. Expert tennis players were also able to carry out forceful executions to their opponent with greater efficiency, making the opponent's response to a large extent more difficult. These findings are in accordance with those of McPherson and colleagues.     

Attachment and cognitive skills: An investigation of mediating mechanisms

Associations between maternal attachment patterns and cognitive skills at first grade were examined, and mediators of identified associations tested using Phase I and II data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Care and Youth Development, a prospective study of 1364 children and families from birth through sixth grade. There were three main findings. First, ambivalent and insecure/other attachment patterns were negative predictors of cognitive skills. Second, the association between ambivalent attachment and cognitive skills was mediated by children's behaviors related to testing. Third, the association between insecure/other attachment and cognitive skills was mediated by children's exploration, maternal instruction, children's social relationships, and children's behaviors related to testing. Implications for attachment theory and education are discussed.     

Training cognitive skills in virtual reality: measuring performance.

Across a variety of operational environments, virtual reality (VR) is being increasingly used as a means of simulating hazardous work conditions in order to allow trainees to practice advanced cognitive skills such as problem-solving and decision-making. Replicating dangerous conditions particularly involving heavy machinery in the real world can be dangerous and costly. The use of VR is therefore appealing across many industries such as aviation, mining, and rail. However, while the number of training prototypes increase less focus is being given to appropriate evaluation of the training provided via this technology. Increasing skills acquisition and performance does not depend solely on the appropriate design of simulation training. Of equal importance are strong performance measures which can ultimately feedback on the success or otherwise of training and highlight any deficits to guide ongoing improvements. To ensure cognitive skills acquired in a virtual training environment (VTE) are transferable to the real world, training objectives need to be tied directly to realistic scenario events which in turn are directly linked to measures of specific required behaviors.     

Acquisition of hierarchical reactive skills in a unified cognitive architecture

In this paper, we review Icarus, a cognitive architecture that utilizes hierarchical skills and concepts for reactive execution in physical environments. In addition, we present two extensions to the framework. The first involves the incorporation of means-ends analysis, which lets the system compose known skills to solve novel problems. The second involves the storage of new skills that are based on successful means-ends traces. We report experimental studies of these mechanisms on three distinct domains. Our results suggest that the two methods interact to acquire useful skill hierarchies that generalize well and that reduce the effort required to handle new tasks. We conclude with a discussion of related work on learning and prospects for additional research, including extending the framework to cover developmental phenomena.     

Interference in visual perception by verbal and spatial cognitive activity

In two experiments we tested the hypothesis that cognitive processing based on spatial imagery produces more deterioration of visual perception than cognitive processing based on verbal codes. So, we studied the effect on visual perception of two cognitive tasks, one of spatial imagery and the other a verbal task. In the first one, with 30 participants, we analyzed the mental load and ocular behaviors in both cognitive tasks. In the second experiment, with 29 participants, we studied the effect of both tasks on a visual search task, using a dual-task experimental paradigm. The verbal task presented higher mental load than the imagery task when both tasks were carried out with visual search task, and there was more deterioration in stimulus detection with the verbal task. We can conclude that: (1) cognitive tasks produce important deterioration in the capacities of visual search and identification of stimuli; (2) this deterioration has two components: (a) an inefficient search, associated with alterations of the gaze patterns while performing cognitive tasks, and (b) a general interference, nonspecific to spatial codes, in the process of identification of looked-at stimuli; (3) this cognitive interference is related to the mental load or effort required by the cognitive task.     

Building theories of reading ability: On the relation between individual differences in cognitive skills and reading comprehension

To date most theories of reading ability have emphasized a single factor as the major source of individual differences in performance. However there has been little agreement on what that factor is. However, candidates have included visual discrimination, phonological and semantic recoding, short-term memory, and utilization of linguistic knowledge and context. The single- factor theories are summarized. Literature is then reviewed to show that no single-factor theory is likely to be right, because a very wide range of component skills and abilities has in fact been shown to correlate with reading success. Among them are discrimination of letter location and letter order during perceptual recognition, use of orthographic regularity as an aid to visual code formation, use of spelling-to-sound regularity in phonological recoding, memory for word order, spontaneous identification of syntactic relations, flexibility in prediction from syntactic and semantic context, and context-specificity in semantic encoding. It is concluded that more complex, multifactor models of reading ability are required, and some recent attempts to collect data conducive to such a model are described. In the process, three different approaches to identifying factors relevant to reading success are delineated. These are general abilities assessment, learning potential assessment, and component skills analysis. Two methods of conducting component skills analysis are presented, and it is recommended that they be used as converging operations. Finally, the results of a component skills analysis are used to construct a tentative example of a class of hierarchical models of reading ability that can be pursued developmentally.     

Short-term memory and working memory as indices of children's cognitive skills

In the current literature, empirical and conceptual distinctions have been drawn between a more or less passive short-term memory (STM) system and a more dynamic working memory (WM) system. Distinct tasks have been developed to measure their capacity and research has generally shown that, for adults, WM, and not STM, is a reliable predictor of general cognitive ability. However, the locus of the differences between the tasks has received little attention. We present data from children concerning measures of matrices reasoning ability, reading, and numerical skill along with forward and backward order serial recall of WM, STM, and STM with articulatory suppression tasks. As indices of children's cognitive skills, STM and WM are shown to be rather similar in terms of memory per se. Neither the opportunity for rehearsal nor task complexity provides satisfactory explanations for differences between memory tests.     

Reading practices,reading skills,and cognitive growth in adulthood

Reading is assumed to play an important role in the development of literate persons in that it is consciousness-altering activity. The manner by which reading contributes to development is unclear, however, and has been debated by social scientists for some years. Despite the importance of reading in adult life, only recently have researchers devoted significant attention to what and how well adults read. Less scrutiny has been directed toward understanding what sorts of benefits may be gained from reading in adult life and how reading contributes to adult development. This paper describes adults' reading practices across a variety of social contexts, the types of skills employed in these practices, and how reading may contribute to adult cognitive development. Implications deriving from a better understanding of adult reading practices and skills across the life span are discussed.