The Relationship of a Measure of Frustration Intolerance with Emotional Dysfunction in a Student Sample

This study extended earlier research (Harrington in Cong Ther Res 30:699–709, 2006) on the relationship of the multidimensional Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) with measures of depressed mood, anxiety and anger, independent of self-esteem. The study employed a non-clinical student sample (N = 323) and measures of both state and trait anger and anxiety. In addition, the Unconditional Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (USAQ) was also used to specifically assess REBT self-acceptance beliefs regarding self-worth, as well as a measure of self-esteem. A Serbian version of the FDS was developed for use in the study. Consistent with the earlier research, significant predictive relationships were found, whilst controlling for self-worth, between entitlement and anger, emotional intolerance and anxiety, and discomfort intolerance with depressed mood. Emotional intolerance also proved to be a significant positive predictor of depression, whilst achievement frustration had a negative relationship with depression. Overall, the FDS dimensions had a weaker relationship with emotional states than traits. The results are discussed in regard to the relationship between FDS dimensions and dysfunctional emotions in a non-clinical sample.     

Frustration Intolerance Beliefs as Predictors of Emotional Problems in University Undergraduates

The present study examined the relationship between Frustration Intolerance Beliefs as suggested by the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy framework and emotional problems. Data were collected from 332 university undergraduate students (age 19–26) who completed Demographic Information Sheet, Frustration Discomfort Scale and three subscales of Brief Symptom Inventory including depression, anxiety and hostility. The current findings confirmed the association between frustration intolerance and irrational beliefs and their respective roles in psychological distress among non-clinical student population. Results indicated that FDS subscales were differently related to specific emotions as entitlement and emotional intolerance sub-scales were significantly positively associated with depression, anxiety, and hostility while achievement was significantly negatively associated with hostility. The study has implications for counsellors, school psychologists and policy makers as it highlights the importance of rational group and individual counselling of rational ideas to reduce the emotional problems of students hindering their educational and personal growth.     

Relationships between anger, symptoms, and cognitive factors in OCD checkers

The purpose of this study was to examine whether individuals diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) with primary checking compulsions report higher levels of trait anger and anger expression compared with a student control group, and whether trait anger and anger expression are correlated with specific beliefs and interpretations that are common among individuals who compulsively check. A group of individuals with OCD reporting significant checking compulsions (n=33) and a group of undergraduate students (n=143) completed a questionnaire package that included measures of trait anger and anger expression, as well as measures of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and beliefs. The compulsive checking group reported greater trait anger, though not greater anger expression, than the student control group. Furthermore, beliefs concerning perfectionism and intolerance of uncertainty were positively correlated with anger expression and trait anger among compulsive checkers but not among the student control group. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioural treatments for and models of compulsive checking in OCD.     

An Examination of Distress Intolerance in Undergraduate Students High in Symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder

People with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) engage in maladaptive coping strategies to reduce or avoid distress. Evidence suggests that uncertainty and negative emotions are triggers for distress in people with GAD; however, there may also be other triggers. Recent conceptualizations have highlighted six types of experiences that people report having difficulty withstanding: uncertainty, negative emotions, ambiguity, frustration, physical discomfort, and the perceived consequences of anxious arousal. The present study examined the extent to which individuals high in symptoms of GAD are intolerant of these distress triggers, compared to individuals high in depressive symptoms, and individuals who are low in GAD and depressive symptoms. Undergraduate students (N = 217) completed self-report measures of GAD symptoms, depressive symptoms, and distress intolerance. Individuals high in GAD symptoms reported greater intolerance of all of the distress triggers compared to people low in symptoms of GAD and depression. Individuals high in GAD symptoms reported greater intolerance of physical discomfort compared to those high in depressive symptoms. Furthermore, intolerance of physical discomfort was the best unique correlate of GAD status, suggesting that it may be specific to GAD (versus depression). These findings support continued investigation of the transdiagnosticity and specificity of distress intolerance.     

Social anxiety and anger regulation

Based on the assumption that social anxiety is associated with less assertive behaviour and that effective anger regulation is influenced by social anxiety, two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between social anxiety and anger regulation. In Study 1, questionnaires measuring social anxiety, assertiveness, and six habitual anger‐related responses were administered to 115 adults. Social anxiety had an independent effect on rumination and submission, whereas assertiveness was independently related to the use of humour and feedback. In Study 2 (N = 136 adults) self‐ and observer ratings of anger‐related behaviour were obtained after anger was experimentally induced. Social anxiety was related to self‐ratings of submission and rumination. However, independent observer ratings based on videotapes revealed no significant influence of social anxiety on anger‐related behaviour. Taken together, the results provide evidence that social anxiety is associated with the self‐perception of less assertive behaviour and the tendency to evaluate one's behaviour more negatively. These results are consistent with prior studies showing that socially anxious persons tend to underestimate their social performance relative to the ratings of independent observers. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DIMENSIONS OF FRUSTRATION INTOLERANCE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SELF-CONTROL PROBLEMS

Frustration intolerance beliefs are central to the theory and practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. However, there has been little investigation of the content of these beliefs, and empirical evidence linking specific beliefs to distinct psychological problems is sparse. To redress this, the Frustration–Discomfort Scale has been developed as a multidimensional measure. This was used to explore the relationship between the four dimensions of frustration intolerance (emotional intolerance, demands for entitlement, comfort, and achievement) and problems of self-control. Results indicated that the Frustration–Discomfort sub-scales showed differential relationships with self-control problems, independent of self-worth beliefs. This supported the validity and usefulness of the scale and the importance of distinguishing between dimensions of frustration intolerance. This paper is based on research submitted to the University of Edinburgh in part fulfillment of a Doctorate of Philosophy degree. Address correspondence to Neil Harrington, Psychology Department, Stratheden Hospital, Cupar, Fife, KY15 5RR, UK; e-mail: neil@nharr.freeserve.co.uk.     

Intolerance of Uncertainty Mediates the Relation Between Generalized Anxiety Disorder Symptoms and Anger

Previous research has shown that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) report elevated anger compared with nonanxious individuals; however, the pathways linking GAD and anger are currently unknown. We hypothesized that negative beliefs about uncertainty, negative beliefs about worry and perfectionism dimensions mediate the relationship between GAD symptoms and anger variables. We employed multiple mediation with bootstrapping on cross-sectional data from a student sample (N = 233) to test four models assessing potential mediators of the association of GAD symptoms to inward anger expression, outward anger expression, trait anger and hostility, respectively. The belief that uncertainty has negative personal and behavioural implications uniquely mediated the association of GAD symptoms to inward anger expression (confidence interval [CI] = .0034, .1845, P_M = .5444), and the belief that uncertainty is unfair and spoils everything uniquely mediated the association of GAD symptoms to outward anger expression (CI = .0052, .1936, P_M = .4861) and hostility (CI = .0269, .2427, P_M = .3487). Neither negative beliefs about worry nor perfectionism dimensions uniquely mediated the relation of GAD symptoms to anger constructs. We conclude that intolerance of uncertainty may help to explain the positive connection between GAD symptoms and anger, and these findings give impetus to future longitudinal investigations of the role of anger in GAD.     

Another Search for the “Hot” Cognitions: Appraisal, Irrational Beliefs, Attributions, and Their Relation to Emotion

One study examined the hypothesized status of appraisal and irrational beliefs relative to attributions, as proximal antecedents of emotion. In our study, which looked at 4 pairs of functional and dysfunctional negative emotions (i.e., concern/anxiety, sadness/depression, remorse/guilt, annoyance/anger), undergraduates (N = 120) reported on their attributions, appraisal, irrational beliefs, and emotions during past encounters associated with various negative events. Congruent with both Smith and Lazarus' (1993) appraisal theory and Ellis' (1994) cognitive theory of emotion, the results of this study indicate that the emotions (both functional and dysfunctional negative emotions) were more directly associated with appraisal and with irrational beliefs (dysfunctional negative emotions only) than they were with attributions. Also, irrational beliefs were strongly associated with appraisal; while demandingness (DEM) was associated more with primary appraisal, awfulizing/catastrophizing, low frustration tolerance, and global evaluation of human worth (including self-downing) were associated more with secondary appraisal. Dysfunctional emotions seem to involve primary appraisal associated with DEM while functional emotions involve primary appraisal associated with preferences. These findings lend to support the status of appraisal and irrational beliefs as the proximal cognitive antecedents of emotion and the status of irrational beliefs as a differencing factor between functional and dysfunctional emotions.     

Changes in Problematic Anger,Shame, and Disgust in Anxious and Depressed Adults Undergoing Treatment for Emotion Dysregulation

Emotion dysregulation, the pervasive difficulty managing negative emotions, is a core problem across mood and anxiety disorders. Anger, shame, and disgust are particularly problematic emotions, impacting both disorder severity and treatment outcome. We previously found that a 16-week dialectical behavior therapy skills training group (DBT-ST) was superior to an activities-based support group (ASG) in decreasing emotion dysregulation in 44 adults with high emotion dysregulation who met diagnostic criteria for an anxiety or depressive disorder. We presently examine these participants’ changes in anger, shame, disgust, and distress using self-reports collected over 6 months during and after treatment. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses show that DBT-ST was superior to ASG in decreasing anger suppression (d = 0.93) and distress (d = 1.04). Both conditions significantly reduced shame, disgust propensity, and disgust sensitivity, but neither was superior for these outcomes. The treatments did not significantly reduce anger expression. Mediation analyses suggest that condition indirectly influenced 4-month anger suppression, shame, and distress through its effect on 2-month emotion dysregulation. These findings suggest that DBT-ST is efficacious for certain problematic emotions and distress in depressed and anxious adults and that common factors may account for some, but not all, of its benefits.     

Unconditional Self Acceptance and Self Esteem in Relation to Frustration Intolerance Beliefs and Psychological Distress

The present study examines the moderating role of unconditional self acceptance and self esteem in relation to frustration intolerance beliefs and psychological distress. Participants were one hundred and fifty student (aged 18–25) studying at three universities (COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, University of Management Sciences, and University of Central Punjab) of Lahore, Pakistan. They completed a demographic information sheet, the Frustration Discomfort Scale (Harrington in Clin Psychol Psychother 12:374–387, 2005a), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg in Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1965), the Unconditional Self Acceptance Questionnaire (Chamberlain and Haaga in J Ration Emotive Cogn Behav Ther 19:163–176, 2001a), and the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg in Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. NFERNelson, Great Britain, 1972). The results demonstrated the moderating effects of unconditional self acceptance and self esteem in the relationship between frustration intolerance beliefs (entitlement, achievement, emotional intolerance, and discomfort intolerance) and psychological distress . The present findings highlight the importance unconditional self acceptance that reduces the emotional problems of students hindering their educational and personal growth.     

Irrational Beliefs and the Experience and Expression of Anger

The present study assessed rational-emotive theories of anger by examining the interrelationships of irrational beliefs and the experience and expression of anger. An audiotaped anger-provoking scenario was used to determine whether irrational beliefs predicted state anger and hostile thoughts following provocation. After completing measures of irrational beliefs, trait anger, and anger expression and control, 161 college students were exposed to the provoking stimulus, which was followed by measures of state anger and hostile thoughts. Findings showed both low frustration tolerance and awfulizing were related to trait anger, anger suppression, and outward anger expression. Only low frustration tolerance was related to state anger following provocation. However, awfulizing was associated with all hostile thoughts, and both self-directed shoulds and self-worth were associated with derogatory thoughts about others. Only awfulizing had incremental validity over trait anger, and then, only in the prediction of derogatory thoughts.     

Discomfort intolerance: evaluation of a potential risk factor for anxiety psychopathology

Discomfort intolerance, defined as an individual difference in the capacity to tolerate unpleasant bodily sensations, is a construct recently posited as a risk factor for panic and anxiety psychopathology. The present report used a biological challenge procedure to evaluate whether discomfort intolerance predicts fearful responding beyond the effects of trait anxiety and a well-established psychological vulnerability factor (i.e., anxiety sensitivity). Nonclinical community participants (N=44) with no history of panic attacks or any Axis I condition completed a 35% CO(2) challenge. Results are consistent with our hypothesis suggesting that discomfort intolerance incrementally predicts increased subjective reactivity to the challenge. Moreover, there was some suggestion that discomfort intolerance interacted synergistically with anxiety sensitivity to increase anxiety-related symptoms. These findings add to a small but growing literature suggesting that discomfort intolerance may play a role in the development of anxiety problems.     

The relationship between negative urgency and generalized anxiety disorder symptoms: the role of intolerance of negative emotions and intolerance of uncertainty

Background and Objectives: GAD symptoms are associated with greater negative urgency, a dimension of impulsivity defined as the tendency to act rashly when distressed. This study examined the degree to which intolerance of negative emotional states and intolerance of uncertainty account for the association between negative urgency and GAD symptoms. Design: An analysis of indirect effects evaluated whether intolerance of negative emotions and intolerance of uncertainty uniquely account for the association between negative urgency and GAD symptom severity. Methods: Undergraduate students (N?=?308) completed measures of GAD symptoms, trait anxiety, negative urgency, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty. Results: Greater symptoms of GAD, intolerance of negative emotional states, and intolerance of uncertainty were associated with greater negative urgency. There was an indirect relationship between negative urgency and GAD symptoms through intolerance of negative emotional states and intolerance of uncertainty even when controlling for trait anxiety. Intolerance of negative emotional states and intolerance of uncertainty each had an indirect relationship with GAD severity through negative urgency, suggesting possible bi-directional relations. Conclusions: Future studies should examine the role of intolerance of negative emotional states and intolerance of uncertainty in the impulsive behavior of individuals with GAD, and whether impulsive behavior reinforces these processes.     

Perceived impact of anger and anxiety on sporting performance in rugby players

Objective: The main purpose of the study was to extend the notion of directional perceptions beyond anxiety to anger in order to assess rugby players’ perception of the facilitative or debilitative effects of trait anger symptoms.Design: A cross-sectional study design was employed using normative measures of anger and anxiety.Method: The frequency and direction of symptoms of competitive trait anger were assessed in 197 Italian rugby players together with the intensity and direction of multidimensional trait anxiety.Results: Findings revealed a general tendency of rugby players to experience a moderate frequency of anger symptoms and to interpret their symptoms as facilitative rather than debilitative. Regarding the direction of symptoms, cognitive anxiety was a significant predictor of anger, while self-confidence was a significant predictor of control of anger.Conclusions: Support was provided for assessment of individual's interpretation of anger symptoms.     

The relationship between beliefs about emotions and quality of life in irritable bowel syndrome

Suppression of undesirable emotions, as well as beliefs about the unacceptability of experiencing and expressing emotions, have both been shown to be related to poorer health-related outcomes in several clinical groups. Potential models through which these variables relate have yet to be tested in those with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and are therefore examined in the current article. Online questionnaires were administered to people with IBS (n = 84) to test a mediation model in which beliefs about the unacceptability of emotions are associated with greater emotional suppression, which in turn relates to increased affective distress and consequently poorer quality of life. An alternate model to test the direction of effect along with two further models using support-seeking as mediators of the same predictor and outcome were also tested. Emotional suppression and affective distress (in that particular order) mediate the relationship between beliefs about emotions and quality of life IBS. The models using support-seeking as mediators of the relationship between beliefs about emotions and the two outcomes were not supported. These findings suggest a role for emotional processing in medically unexplained symptoms and imply the need to address such beliefs about emotions in psychological therapies.     

Situational specificity of trait influences on drivers’ evaluations and driving behaviour

This study explored the influence of anger and anxiety traits on driver evaluations and behaviour during a simulated drive. Forty-eight licensed drivers completed identical simulated driving tasks during which they rated levels of current anger, calmness and frustration or levels of danger, calmness and difficulty. Anxiety-prone drivers made higher difficultly evaluations and generally drove more cautiously. Anger-prone drivers gave higher ratings of anger and frustration, but their evaluations and anger tendencies were unrelated to their general driving behaviours. When driving behaviours in high and low anger-provoking situations were contrasted, in low anger-provoking situations, drivers higher in trait anger reported more anger and frustration and also drove faster and with more sideward movement. When driving situations were considered separately, although not overall, behaviour and evaluations were related: when forced to move sideward, drivers reported more frustration; when forced to drive more slowly, they reported more anger, and subsequently increased acceleration, throttle pressure and steering wheel use. These relationships were not moderated by trait anger. Irrespective of trait anger, drivers become angry when impeded, or in other anger-provoking situations, only drivers with high trait anger become angry and behaved aggressively in circumstances most would not consider provocative.     

Irrational beliefs as predictors of negative affective states

One effort to specify cognitive mediators related to dysfunctional emotional responses has been made by Ellis, who proposed that certain irrational beliefs elicit maladaptive emotional reactions. In order to test Ellis's hypotheses in a nonclinical sample, the Irrational Beliefs Test, two anxiety inventories, the MMPI-168, and a locus of control scale were completed by 32 male heavy social drinker undergraduates, who then kept daily records of their anxiety, anger, unhappiness, and drinking behaviors for 7 months. Four factors underlay the 10 beliefs but did not necessarily correlate with dysphoric affect. Certain irrational beliefs predicted daily unhappiness ratings over the 7-month period and daily anger ratings over 3 months, but the beliefs exhibited only a weak relationship with daily general anxiety ratings. Irrational beliefs, especially worrying about approval and competence, were strongly related to test anxiety and Spielberger's trait anxiety measure, were somewhat related to social anxiety and general anxiety, were minimally related to locus of control and social desirability, and were essentially unrelated to the MMPI-168's measures of depression and anxiety and to drinking behaviors. Although 2 of the irrational beliefs failed to exhibit relationships with negative affect, the other 8 show the predicted relationships to moods, providing support for a cognitive mediational model of maladaptive emotions in a nonpathological population.This research was partially supported by grants from the Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, from a National Institute of Mental Health small grant AA03947-01, and from a National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism postdoctoral training fellowship No. 1T32AA07171-01. We would like to thank Jean Chapman, Ph.D., for her advice on the statistics and Dorothy Knapp, Ph.D., for her painstaking scoring and coding of all the data records.     

Ethno-culture, anxiety, and irrational beliefs

Ellis, Beck, and others in the cognitive therapy tradition maintain that there is a strong correlation between irrational beliefs and nonpsychotic mental health problems such as anxiety. Numerous studies have found that irrational beliefs are correlated with high trait anxiety. In a multi-cultural sample (n = 250; 46.7% Caucasian, 23.6% Asian, 23.6% multi-cultural, and 6.1% of other ethno-cultural backgrounds), these findings are replicated. Profile analysis (MANOVA) results reveals significant relationships between high trait anxiety and seven of the ten irrational beliefs scales on Jones' Irrational Belief Test. Asians are found to be the most anxious, and the relationship between ethno-culture and irrational beliefs was significant on three of the ten scales, with Asians having more irrational beliefs than Caucasians or multi-cultural individuals. However, no interaction is found between anxiety and ethno-culture in their relationship to irrational beliefs. Thus, these results reveal that there are ethno-cultural differences in anxiety and irrational beliefs. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Ethno-culture, anxiety, and irrational beliefs

Ellis, Beck, and others in the cognitive therapy tradition maintain that there is a strong correlation between irrational beliefs and nonpsychotic mental health problems such as anxiety. Numerous studies have found that irrational beliefs are correlated with high trait anxiety. In a multi-cultural sample (n = 250; 46.7% Caucasian, 23.6% Asian, 23.6% multi-cultural, and 6.1% of other ethno-cultural backgrounds), these findings are replicated. Profile analysis (MANOVA) results reveals significant relationships between high trait anxiety and seven of the ten irrational beliefs scales on Jones' Irrational Belief Test. Asians are found to be the most anxious, and the relationship between ethno-culture and irrational beliefs was significant on three of the ten scales, with Asians having more irrational beliefs than Caucasians or multi-cultural individuals. However, no interaction is found between anxiety and ethno-culture in their relationship to irrational beliefs. Thus, these results reveal that there are ethno-cultural differences in anxiety and irrational beliefs. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.