Intelligence and spatiotemporal patterns of event-related desynchronization (ERD)

Recently, several studies have reported negative associations between brain activity under cognitive load and psychometric intelligence. The position emission tomography (PET) used in these studies allows a high spatial resolution, but it does not permit an assessment of the temporal course of cerebral activation. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between psychometric intelligence (determined by Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices) and spatiotemporal patterns of cortical activation. Seventeen university students performed an elementary cognitive task, the Sentence Verification Test (SVT), during which the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. In the EEG, the event-related desynchronization (ERD) was quantified, which can be interpreted as a correlate of cortical activation. Lower IQ participants displayed a comparatively unspecific cortical activation increasing with time, whereas higher IQ participants were characterized by a temporal development of activation in those cortical regions that are required for task performance, resulting in less overall activation as compared to the lower IQ participants. These findings support the hypothesis of a more efficient use of the brain in higher IQ individuals.     

Intelligence and neural efficiency: The influence of task content and sex on the brain–IQ relationship

In studying physiological correlates of human intelligence, new brain imaging techniques like positron emission tomography (PET) and electroencephalography (EEG) mapping methods focus on the level and topographical distribution of cortical activation. Actually, there is strong empirical evidence that more intelligent individuals display a more focused cortical activation during cognitive performance resulting in lower total brain activation than in less intelligent individuals (i.e., neural efficiency hypothesis). Former studies have used only single, homogeneous tasks and most of the studies have been performed using males. Therefore, here the influence of different task content and of sex on the relationship between intelligence and cortical activation has been tested. In a sample of 26 males and 25 females, we administered verbal, numerical, and figural versions of a well-known elementary cognitive task, the so-called Posner task. Our results suggest a comparatively low cortical activation in brighter as compared to less intelligent individuals but this expected neural efficiency pattern interacted with sex and task content: In the verbal Posner task, the females were more likely to produce cortical activation patterns in line with the neural efficiency hypothesis, whereas in the figural task, primarily the males displayed the expected inverse relationship between IQ and cortical activation.     

Event-related induced frontal alpha as a marker of lateral prefrontal cortex activation during cognitive reappraisal

Electrocortical activity, typically used to track the effects of cognitive reappraisal on the processing of emotional stimuli, has not been used to index the prefrontal-cortex-mediated regulatory mechanisms responsible for these effects. In the present study, we examined the novel possibility that induced frontal alpha (i.e., 8?C13?Hz), shown to reflect the inhibition and disengagement of task-relevant cortical regions, may be quantified to explore cortical activation that is specifically enhanced during cognitive reappraisal. For this purpose, 44 participants viewed unpleasant and neutral pictures followed by auditory instructions to either continue viewing the picture or reduce their emotional response to the picture by making the picture seem less emotional (i.e., cognitive reappraisal). In line with previous work, unpleasant pictures elicited a larger late positive potential (LPP) than did neutral pictures. Also corroborating previous work, the mid-latency LPP was reduced when pictures were cognitively reappraised. However, the present study showed for the first time that whereas unpleasant pictures elicited higher frontal alpha power bilaterally than did the neutral pictures, frontal alpha power was reduced (indicative of more activation and cognitive control) during cognitive reappraisal of both picture types over the left hemisphere. Taken together, the LPP and event-related induced frontal-alpha findings contribute unique information about the distinct neural substrates and cognitive processes underlying reappraisal.     

A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence,power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation practice

Activation of a default mode network (DMN) including frontal and parietal midline structures varies with cognitive load, being more active during low-load tasks and less active during high-load tasks requiring executive control. Meditation practices entail various degrees of cognitive control. Thus, DMN activation patterns could give insight into the nature of meditation practices. This 10-week random assignment study compared theta2, alpha1, alpha2, beta1, beta2 and gamma EEG coherence, power, and eLORETA cortical sources during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice in 38 male and female college students, average age 23.7 years. Significant brainwave differences were seen between groups. Compared to eyes-closed rest, TM practice led to higher alpha1 frontal log-power, and lower beta1 and gamma frontal and parietal log-power; higher frontal and parietal alpha1 interhemispheric coherence and higher frontal and frontal-central beta2 intrahemispheric coherence. eLORETA analysis identified sources of alpha1 activity in midline cortical regions that overlapped with the DMN. Greater activation in areas that overlap the DMN during TM practice suggests that meditation practice may lead to a foundational or ‘ground’ state of cerebral functioning that may underlie eyes-closed rest and more focused cognitive processes.     

The functional anatomy of inspection time: a pilot fMRI study

Seven healthy subjects underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain while performing an inspection time task. Employing a block-type design, the task had three difficulty levels: a control condition, an easy (200 ms stimulus duration), and a more difficult (40 ms) discrimination. Based on group results, there were widespread significant areas of difference in brain activation and deactivation when pairwise comparisons were conducted among the three task conditions. When the difficult condition was compared with the easy condition, there was relative activation in areas of the following brain regions: cingulate gyrus and some frontal and parietal lobe areas. Areas within the following regions showed relative deactivation (greater blood oxygenation level-dependent, BOLD, signal in the easy condition): frontal, temporal, and parietal lobe. There were overlaps between these areas and those found to be active while performing higher cognitive tasks in other functional brain imaging studies. These pilot data encourage future studies of the functional anatomy of inspection time and its relevance to psychometric intelligence.     

Effect of brief mindfulness and relaxation inductions on anxiety,affect and brain activation in athletes

The mindfulness-based intervention and psychological skills training are often used for maintaining the mental health or reducing undesirable mental states in athletes. However, their differences in acute effects on mental health and underlying neural mechanism are not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine the differential effects of brief mindfulness induction (MI) and relaxation induction (RI) on state anxiety, affect and brain activation. Thirty-five track and field athletes were recruited for this study. Using a within-subjects crossover design, participants underwent three conditions that incorporated two 30-min experimental conditions (i.e., MI or RI) and a control condition. State anxiety and affect were assessed before and after intervention, and brain activation (i.e., theta, alpha bands) were recorded by electroencephalography (EEG) during each 30-min condition. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that MI and RI similarly reduced state anxiety and negative affect from pre-test to post-test compared to the control condition. In terms of positive affect, there were no significant differences among the three conditions across times. Furthermore, participants exhibited higher frontal theta power during the MI and RI than control condition, whereas no differences in alpha power were observed among conditions. The current study provides initial evidence from an electrophysiological perspective that brief MI and RI both improve the negative psychological states in individual sport athletes through similar neural mechanisms. Nevertheless, the moderating effects of training experiences and long-term interventions on mental state and EEG activity in athletes need further investigation in future studies.     

A Pilot Study of Electrocortical Activity in Dysfunctional Anger: Decreased Frontocortical Activation,Impaired Attention Control,and Diminished Behavioral Inhibition

Dysfunctional anger, though not a primary clinical diagnosis per se, does present clinically as a pathological mood for which treatment is sought. Few studies have probed the neurocortical correlates of dysfunctional anger or assessed if cognitive processes, such as attention, are altered in dysfunctional anger. Though dysfunctional and high trait anger appears to be associated with biased processing of anger‐eliciting information, few studies have examined if dysfunctional anger modulates attention more generally. This is a notable gap as volitional attention control is associated with effective emotive regulation, which is impaired in dysfunctional anger and in associated acts of aggression. In this pilot study, we examined performance and electroencephalographic (EEG) profiles during a 12‐min continuous performance task (CPT) of sustained attention in 15 adults with dysfunctional anger (Anger group) and 14 controls (control group). The Anger group had fewer hits at the end of the CPT, which correlated with decreased frontocortical activation, suggesting decreased engagement of frontal circuits when attention is taxed. The Anger group had more false alarms overall indicating impaired response inhibition. Increased right cortical activation during the initial portion of CPT existed in the Anger group, perhaps reflecting greater engagement of frontal circuits (i.e. effort) during initial stages of the task compared to controls. Finally, increased overall beta₁ power, suggesting increased cortical activation, was noted in the Anger group. These EEG patterns suggest a hypervigilant state in dysfunctional anger, which may interfere with effective attention control and decrease inhibition. Such impairments likely extend beyond the laboratory setting, and may associate with aggressive acts in real life. Aggr. Behav. 38:469‐480, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Perseverative and compulsive-like staring causes uncertainty about perception

Earlier studies have found that perseverative checking provokes memory distrust for checked stimuli, suggesting that compulsive checking is a counter-productive strategy to increase memory confidence. Obsessive Compulsive (OC) uncertainty also occurs for functions other than memory, like perception. Uncertainty about perception in OC patients gives rise to prolonged attending to the issues that patients feel uncertain about. In an experiment with 40 healthy volunteers, it was tested whether OC-like, perseverative (visual) attending induces OC-like experiences of dissociation and perceptual uncertainty. Participants had to look at an object (a gas stove or a light bulb) during a pre-test and a post-test. In between these tests, participants in the experimental condition were asked to stare at an object that was the same as the to-be-looked-at object during the pre/post-tests. Participants in the control condition stared at an object that was different from the object they looked at during pre/post-test. Both in the experimental and control conditions, dissociation was observed; the effects were equally strong. Critically, with regards to OC-like perceptual uncertainty, the effects were significantly stronger in the experimental condition. The findings indicate that OC-like perseveration induces distrust, not only about memory, but also about perception. To explain the results, we suggest that perseveration interferes with spreading of activation and that cognitive uncertainty (and possibly derealisation) is the experiential end-product of perseveration. It is suggested that all forms of OC perseveration share such interference and that all undermine confidence in cognitive operations.     

The relationship between rational thinking and intelligence in children

This study ws designed to evaluate the efficacy of a four-session REE curriculum and examine the relationship between intelligence and the endorsement of irrational beliefs in elementary school children. A twotailedt-test administered to examine difference between pre- and post-test scores onThe Idea Inventory was statistically significant,t (1,94)=5.90,p<.0001. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between pre-test scores onThe Idea Inventory and theOtis-Lennon School Ability Test failed to reach significance (r=.15) suggesting higher intelligence did not predict greater endorsement of rational beliefs. The post-test scores using the same two instruments reached a correlation coefficient of r=.51 and was statistically significant at the .01 level. A higher percentage of children who scored below the mean on theOtis-Lennon improved from pre- to post-test than children who scored above the mean.     

Intelligence is differentially related to neural effort in the task-positive and the task-negative brain network

Previous studies on individual differences in intelligence and brain activation during cognitive processing focused on brain regions where activation increases with task demands (task-positive network, TPN). Our study additionally considers brain regions where activation decreases with task demands (task-negative network, TNN) and compares effects of intelligence on neural effort in the TPN and the TNN. In a sample of 52 healthy subjects, functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to determine changes in neural effort associated with the processing of a working memory task. The task comprised three conditions of increasing difficulty: (a) maintenance, (b) manipulation, and (c) updating of a four-letter memory set. Neural effort was defined as signal increase in the TPN and signal decrease in the TNN, respectively. In both functional networks, TPN and TNN, neural effort increased with task difficulty. However, intelligence, as assessed with Raven's Matrices, was differentially associated with neural effort in the TPN and TNN. In the TPN, we observed a positive association, while we observed a negative association in the TNN. In terms of neural efficiency (i.e., task performance in relation to neural effort expended on task processing), more intelligent subjects (as compared to less intelligent subjects) displayed lower neural efficiency in the TPN, while they displayed higher neural efficiency in the TNN. The results illustrate the importance of differentiating between TPN and TNN when interpreting correlations between intelligence and fMRI measures of brain activation. Importantly, this implies the risk of misinterpreting whole brain correlations when ignoring the functional differences between TPN and TNN.     

Improvement in working memory is not related to increased intelligence scores

The acknowledged high relationship between working memory and intelligence suggests common underlying cognitive mechanisms and, perhaps, shared biological substrates. If this is the case, improvement in working memory by repeated exposure to challenging span tasks might be reflected in increased intelligence scores. Here we report a study in which 288 university undergraduates completed the odd numbered items of four intelligence tests on time 1 and the even numbered items of the same tests one month later (time 2). In between, 173 participants completed three sessions, separated by exactly one week, comprising verbal, numerical, and spatial short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WMC) tasks imposing high processing demands (STM–WMC group). 115 participants also completed three sessions, separated by exactly one week, but comprising verbal, numerical, and spatial simple speed tasks (processing speed, PS, and attention, ATT) with very low processing demands (PS-ATT group). The main finding reveals increased scores from the pre-test to the post-test intelligence session (more than half a standard deviation on average). However, there was no differential improvement on intelligence between the STM-WMC and PS-ATT groups.     

智力与心理速度的关系研究述评

目前在智力研究领域出现了一种新的研究趋势,研究者开始关注心理计量学智力与认知或生理心理学变量的相关,考察的重点是心理速度,相应的测量指标主要有检测时（IT）、反应时、ERP或神经传导速度,等等。在运用IT任务进行的ERP研究中发现,ERP波幅和潜伏期的不同往往能够反映出智力上的差异。信息加工速度和神经传导速度均与一般智力因素（g因素）存在较高的相关。上述研究发现促进了智力与心理速度关系的跨学科研究,成为智力研究领域中的热点     

Manipulation of frontal brain asymmetry by cognitive tasks

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate whether verbal fluency tasks may specifically induce relatively greater left than right hemispheric activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The effectiveness of the manipulation was evaluated by EEG, which was recorded during performance of the verbal fluency task and during two control conditions, i.e., a baseline condition without cognitive demands, and a mental arithmetic task, respectively. The results demonstrate that the desired effect can only be achieved in individuals with good performance on the verbal fluency task. Good and poor performers do not only differ in lateral asymmetry, but also in the most affected region within the prefrontal cortex. Whereas good performers show relatively increased activation in the cortical region and hemisphere putatively most specialized for this kind of task (i.e., the left dorsolateral frontal cortex), poor performers show a marked shift of frontopolar asymmetry to the right.     

正念训练对康复期精神分裂症患者抑制控制的影响

探究正念训练对康复期精神分裂症患者正念觉知水平和抑制控制能力的影响。选取54名康复期精神分裂症住院患者随机分为正念组和对照组。对照组予以常规康复治疗,正念组在常规康复治疗基础上进行8周正念训练。结果发现：（1）在正念觉知方面,正念组后测得分显著高于前测,对照组前后测得分无显著差异;正念组后测得分显著高于对照组。（2）在抑制控制方面,正念组后测Stroop任务反应时显著低于前测,对照组前后测反应时无显著差异;正念组后测反应时显著低于对照组。结果表明,正念训练有助于提高康复期精神分裂症患者正念觉知水平和改善其抑制控制能力。     

Developmental intelligence: From empirical to hidden constructs

This article answers some of the criticisms and suggestions of the three commentaries. We showed, in agreement with Coyle, that (i) variability is indeed distinct from speed, (ii) they both additively reflect processing efficiency and (iii) that they differentially relate to WM and gf during development. In agreement with Kail, we showed that developmental intelligence and psychometric intelligence are (i) related but distinct, they additively contribute to school learning and (iii) their role varies with developmental phase. Finally, in agreement with Pascual-Leone, we proposed a number of higher level hidden constructs to account for the data patterns observed between empirical constructs, such as speed, variability, WM, and reasoning.     

Erratum to “Positive association between cognitive ability and cortical thickness in a representative US sample of healthy 6 to 18 year-olds”

Neuroimaging studies, using various modalities, have evidenced a link between the general intelligence factor (g) and regional brain function and structure in several multimodal association areas. While in the last few years, developments in computational neuroanatomy have made possible the in vivo quantification of cortical thickness, the relationship between cortical thickness and psychometric intelligence has been little studied. Recently, cortical thickness estimations have been improved by the use of an iterative hemisphere-specific template registration algorithm which provides a better between-subject alignment of brain surfaces. Using this improvement, we aimed to further characterize brain regions where cortical thickness was associated with cognitive ability differences and to test the hypothesis that these regions are mostly located in multimodal association areas. We report associations between a general cognitive ability factor (as an estimate of g) derived from the four subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence and cortical thickness adjusted for age, gender, and scanner in a large sample of healthy children and adolescents (ages 6–18, n = 216) representative of the US population. Significant positive associations were evidenced between the cognitive ability factor and cortical thickness in most multimodal association areas. Results are consistent with a distributed model of intelligence.     

Positive association between cognitive ability and cortical thickness in a representative US sample of healthy 6 to 18 year-olds

Neuroimaging studies, using various modalities, have evidenced a link between the general intelligence factor (g) and regional brain function and structure in several multimodal association areas. While in the last few years, developments in computational neuroanatomy have made possible the in vivo quantification of cortical thickness, the relationship between cortical thickness and psychometric intelligence has been little studied. Recently, cortical thickness estimations have been improved by the use of an iterative hemisphere-specific template registration algorithm which provides a better between-subject alignment of brain surfaces. Using this improvement, we aimed to further characterize brain regions where cortical thickness was associated with cognitive ability differences and to test the hypothesis that these regions are mostly located in multimodal association areas. We report associations between a general cognitive ability factor (as an estimate of g) derived from the four subtests of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence and cortical thickness adjusted for age, gender, and scanner in a large sample of healthy children and adolescents (ages 6–18, n = 216) representative of the US population. Significant positive associations were evidenced between the cognitive ability factor and cortical thickness in most multimodal association areas. Results are consistent with a distributed model of intelligence.     

Social marking,socio-cognitive conflict and cognitive development

This study is concerned with assessing whether social marking, i.e. the correspondence between the cognitive solution of a task and the social relation expressed in the material, is a mechanism of cognitive progress which depends on specific forms of socio-cognitive conflict or on presence of familiar social relations in the material. In the first experiment 5-6-year-old non-conserver children were selected during a pre-test that comprised three spatial transformation tasks. During the test phase, 56 children worked on spatial transformation tasks with an adult partner in four socially marked conditions in which the correctness of the adult model varied. All subjects were individually post-tested on the same tasks with unmarked content. Results showed that, under the same marked conditions in the test phase, more progress took place, at the post-test phase, when subjects had interacted with an incorrect adult model than when they had interacted with a correct one. In the second experiment the hypothesis of an interaction between the nature of the material and the kind of social interaction was examined by means of a factorial design in which the factors were adult versus child partner and marked versus unmarked material. The procedures in the pre- and post-test phase were carried out in the same way as in Experiment I. In the test phase 61 non-conserver children interacted with partners who presented completely incorrect model. The results of post-test phase indicated that there was a main effect of social marking although findings of a condition in which children interact with another child on unmarked material also have shown a certain amount of progress. The findings are discussed with respect to the psycho-social model of cognitive development.     

高校毕业生择业焦虑的心理教育实验研究

通过组织择业心理辅导小组对毕业生择业焦虑进行干预,考察其心理教育效果.采用实验组、对照组前后测实验设计,以《高校毕业生择业焦虑问卷》和《状态-特质焦虑量表》为测量工具.结果表明,实验组(n=18)与对照组(n=34)的后测结果差异显著,实验组与对照组的前后测结果差量之间有显著差异,对前测结果进行控制的协方差分析也表明实验组与对照组的组间差异显著.说明研究所设计的小组心理辅导与行为治疗相结合的心理教育方案是帮助毕业生克服择业焦虑的有效方法,可用于毕业生择业心理教育.     

Changes in frontal and posterior cortical activity underlie the early emergence of executive function

Executive function (EF) is a key cognitive process that emerges in early childhood and facilitates children's ability to control their own behavior. Individual differences in EF skills early in life are predictive of quality‐of‐life outcomes 30 years later (Moffitt et al., 2011). What changes in the brain give rise to this critical cognitive ability? Traditionally, frontal cortex growth is thought to underlie changes in cognitive control (Bunge & Zelazo, 2006; Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2009). However, more recent data highlight the importance of long‐range cortical interactions between frontal and posterior brain regions. Here, we test the hypothesis that developmental changes in EF skills reflect changes in how posterior and frontal brain regions work together. Results show that children who fail a “hard” version of an EF task and who are thought to have an immature frontal cortex, show robust frontal activity in an “easy” version of the task. We show how this effect can arise via posterior brain regions that provide on‐the‐job training for the frontal cortex, effectively teaching the frontal cortex adaptive patterns of brain activity on “easy” EF tasks. In this case, frontal cortex activation can be seen as both the cause and the consequence of rule switching. Results also show that older children have differential posterior cortical activation on “easy” and “hard” tasks that reflects continued refinement of brain networks even in skilled children. These data set the stage for new training programs to foster the development of EF skills in at‐risk children.