Peer interactions of normal and attention-deficit-disordered boys during free-play,cooperative task,and simulated classroom situations

Groups of 30 ADD-H boys and 90 normal boys were divided into 30 mixed dyads composed of a normal and an ADD-H boy, and 30 normal dyads composed of 2 normal boys. Dyads were videotaped interacting in 15-minute free-play, 15-minute cooperative task, and 15-minute simulated classroom settings. Mixed dyads engaged in more controlling interaction than normal dyads in both free-play and simulated classroom settings. In the simulated classroom, mixed dyads completed fewer math problems and were less compliant with the commands of peers. ADD-H children spent less simulated classroom time on task and scored lower on drawing tasks than normal peers. Older dyads proved less controlling, more compliant with peer commands, more inclined to play and work independently, less active, and more likely to remain on task during the cooperative task and simulated classroom settings. Results suggest that the ADD-H child prompts a more controlling, less cooperative pattern of responses from normal peers.     

Motor preparation, motor execution, attention, and executive functions in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Attention and executive functions were investigated in medicated and unmedicated children with ADHD combined type using a novel selective reaching task. This task involved responding as rapidly as possible to a target while at times having to ignore a distractor. Results indicated that unmedicated children with ADHD showed slow and inaccurate responding. Slow responding reflected problems at the stage of movement preparation but not movement execution. An attentional impairment, rather than a motor planning problem per se, appeared to underlie the slow movement preparation. Inaccurate responding reflected problems with response inhibition and selective attention, impulsivity, set-shifting, and difficulties in maintaining vigilance. Although medicated children with ADHD did not show slow movement preparation, they did show some response inaccuracy, resulting especially from impulsive responding.These findings suggest that ADHD is characterized by slow motor preparation (but not motor execution), and deficits in selective attention, vigilance, and executive functions. Preliminary results suggest that stimulant medication may resolve some of these motor, attentional and executive function deficits.     

MOTOR PREPARATION,MOTOR EXECUTION,ATTENTION, AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS IN ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

Attention and executive functions were investigated in medicated and unmedicated children with ADHD combined type using a novel selective reaching task. This task involved responding as rapidly as possible to a target while at times having to ignore a distractor. Results indicated that unmedicated children with ADHD showed slow and inaccurate responding. Slow responding reflected problems at the stage of movement preparation but not movement execution. An attentional impairment, rather than a motor planning problem per se, appeared to underlie the slow movement preparation. Inaccurate responding reflected problems with response inhibition and selective attention, impulsivity, set-shifting, and difficulties in maintaining vigilance. Although medicated children with ADHD did not show slow movement preparation, they did show some response inaccuracy, resulting especially from impulsive responding.These findings suggest that ADHD is characterized by slow motor preparation (but not motor execution), and deficits in selective attention, vigilance, and executive functions. Preliminary results suggest that stimulant medication may resolve some of these motor, attentional and executive function deficits.     

Attention styles of hyperactive and normal girls

Behavioral characteristics and cognitive skills of teacher-identified hyperactive (n=24) and normally active (n=24) first- and second-grade girls were investigated. Teachers rated subjects on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (TRS). Subjects were given several tasks measuring attentional styles and motor skills. Results suggested that hyperactive girls, like hyperactive boys, have short attention spans and poor concentration when compared with normals. Unlike hyperactive boys, hyperactive girls did not show an impulsive response style, and presented few conduct problems to their teachers. TRS profile patterns of the hyperactive girls were similar to those of hyperactive boys, but cutoff scores currently used for males may not be applicable to females. A direct comparison of hyperactive females and males is advocated.This study is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology, Indiana University, by the first author. Thanks are expressed to the students and teachers of the Monroe County Community School Corporation who took part in the study.     

Effect of physical stimulation on motor inhibition in children

The effect of physical stimulation on motor inhibition and cognitive performance of 70 third-grade children was examined. 46 subjects participated in a brief, but strenuous obstacle course. Their performance on two motor inhibition tasks, a short-term memory/attentional task, and a test assessing reflectivity was assessed before the stimulation, immediately afterward, and again after a 30-min. delay. A control group (n = 24) received comparable experience without the physical intervention. Physical stimulation facilitated fine motor inhibition at both the immediate and delayed retest. The intervention interfered with an apparent practice effect on the attentional task. No condition effects were noted for gross motor performance or reflectivity, although girls were significantly more reflective at retest. It is proposed that physical stimulation augments certain aspects of inhibitory control in children.     

Equating tasks and sustaining attention in children and adults: The methodological and theoretical utility ofd’ matching

The present study develops a method to create task equivalency for children and adults in vigilance research. Experiment 1 employed the signal detection index of perceptual sensitivity (d’) to calibrate vigilance tasks for 32 children (ages 78) and 32 adults. The results of Experiment 1 suggest that task equivalency across groups can be attained, and a vigilance decrement was observed for children. In Experiment 2, the task parameter of event rate was manipulated across two vigils. Again, 32 children (ages 78) and 32 adults participated. The results suggest that a reverse event rate effect emerged for both children and adults. In addition, developmental differences in response to the event rate manipulation and with respect to the vigilance decrement emerged: Children benefited less from the manipulation and were more likely to demonstrate a vigilance decrement than were adults. No developmental differences emerged for the sensitivity decrement. The results are explained with reference to how task demands interact with participant arousal, and implications for development and for future research are discussed.     

Equating tasks and sustaining attention in children and adults: the methodological and theoretical utility of d' matching

The present study develops a method to create task equivalency for children and adults in vigilance research. Experiment 1 employed the signal detection index of perceptual sensitivity (d') to calibrate vigilance tasks for 32 children (ages 7-8) and 32 adults. The results of Experiment 1 suggest that task equivalency across groups can be attained, and a vigilance decrement was observed for children. In Experiment 2, the task parameter of event rate was manipulated across two vigils. Again, 32 children (ages 7-8) and 32 adults participated. The results suggest that a reverse event rate effect emerged for both children and adults. In addition, developmental differences in response to the event rate manipulation and with respect to the vigilance decrement emerged: Children benefited less from the manipulation and were more likely to demonstrate a vigilance decrement than were adults. No developmental differences emerged for the sensitivity decrement. The results are explained with reference to how task demands interact with participant arousal, and implications for development and for future research are discussed.     

Sensory modality, temperament, and the development of sustained attention: a vigilance study in children and adults

Applying optimal stimulation theory, the present study explored the development of sustained attention as a dynamic process. It examined the interaction of modality and temperament over time in children and adults. Second-grade children and college-aged adults performed auditory and visual vigilance tasks. Using the Carey temperament questionnaires (S. C. McDevitt & W. B. Carey, 1995), the authors classified participants according to temperament composites of reactivity and task orientation. In a preliminary study, tasks were equated across age and modality using d' matching procedures. In the main experiment, 48 children and 48 adults performed these calibrated tasks. The auditory task proved more difficult for both children and adults. Intermodal relations changed with age: Performance across modality was significantly correlated for children but not for adults. Although temperament did not significantly predict performance in adults, it did for children. The temperament effects observed in children--specifically in those with the composite of reactivity--occurred in connection with the auditory task and in a manner consistent with theoretical predictions derived from optimal stimulation theory.     

Regulating cognitive control through approach-avoidance motor actions

In two studies, the regulatory function of approach-avoidance cues in activating cognitive control processes was investigated. It was hypothesized that avoidance motor actions, relative to approach motor actions, increase the recruitment of cognitive resources, resulting in better performance on tasks that draw on these capacities. In Study 1, error rates on a verbal response mode version of the Stroop task were analyzed. On inconsistent Stroop trials, participants in the avoidance condition made significantly fewer errors than those in the approach condition. In Study 2, performance differences on a task switching paradigm were investigated. Crucially, approach and avoidance motor actions were manipulated within-subjects by alternating between approach and avoidance motor actions on 4 blocks of trials. Temporal switching costs were significantly lower while performing an avoidance, compared to an approach motor action. These results support our hypothesis that avoidance cues, relative to approach cues, lead to improved performance on cognitive control tasks.     

Sustained attention and unintentional injury among preschool-aged children.

This study examined vigilance in preschool-aged children and explored the relationship between vigilance and unintentional injury. There were 28 participating children, aged 4 and 5 years, who completed a computerized vigilance task for two 5-min sessions. The task generated measures of correct detections, false alarms, reaction time, and the signal detection indices of d' and c. Primary caregivers completed daily injury phone journals for a 4-week period. Results indicated that age and signal probability affected vigilance. Older children made more correct detections, had greater perceptual sensitivity, and performed in patterns similar to adults. Performance was enhanced in the high signal probability condition. In addition, vigilance indicators of perceptual sensitivity and response bias were predictive of injury, while age was not. Specifically, children with lower perceptual sensitivity scores, and who were less responsive to the vigilance task, experienced more unintentional injuries over the course of the study.     

Sustained Attention and Unintentional Injury Among Preschool-Aged Children

This study examined vigilance in preschool-aged children and explored the relationship between vigilance and unintentional injury. There were 28 participating children, aged 4 and 5 years, who completed a computerized vigilance task for two 5-min sessions. The task generated measures of correct detections, false alarms, reaction time, and the signal detection indices of d ' and c. Primary caregivers completed daily injury phone journals for a 4-week period. Results indicated that age and signal probability affected vigilance. Older children made more correct detections, had greater perceptual sensitivity, and performed in patterns similar to adults. Performance was enhanced in the high signal probability condition. In addition, vigilance indicators of perceptual sensitivity and response bias were predictive of injury, while age was not. Specifically, children with lower perceptual sensitivity scores, and who were less responsive to the vigilance task, experienced more unintentional injures over the course of the study.     

From Mackworth’s clock to the open road: A literature review on driver vigilance task operationalization

ObjectiveThis review aimed to characterize tasks applied in driving research, in terms of instructions/conditions, signal types/rates, and component features in comparison to the classic vigilance literature.BackgroundDriver state monitoring is facing increased attention with evolving vehicle automation, and real-time assessment of driver vigilance could provide widespread value across various levels (e.g., from monitoring the alertness of manual drivers to verifications of readiness in transitions of control between automated and manual driving). However, task requirement comparisons between the classic vigilance research and vigilance in car driving have not to date been systematically conducted.MethodThis study decomposed the highest-cited vigilance literature of each full decade since the 1940s for the situational features of the renowned vigilance decrement phenomenon originating from Mackworth (1948). A consensus set of 18 different situational features was compiled and included for example an (1) isolated (2) subject … perceiving (3) rare (4) signals … against (10) frequent (11) noise … in a (17) prolonged (18) task. Next, we reviewed 69 experimental vigilance task operationalizations (i.e., required signal detection and response) within 39 publications concerned with driving vigilance. All vigilance tasks were coded as “driving vigilance tasks” or “non-driving vigilance tasks” based on the perceptual signal and response action both belonging to normal driving activity or not. Presence, absence, and unreported presence/absence of each of the 18 features was rated for each task respectively as “overlap”, “contrary”, and “unspecified”. In conjunction, instructions/environmental conditions, signal definitions, signal rates, and summaries of the experimental vigilance tasks were extracted.ResultsA majority of driving vigilance tasks was performed in simulators (69%) compared to on-road (28%) and watching videos (3%) along with large differences in task conditions. Participants had to maintain fixed speed/lane positions in the simulators in higher proportion (74%) than on the road (36%) where they had only to drive “normally” and/or by loose conventions like “according to the law” more often (55% versus 15%). Additionally, presence of other traffic was found more often on-road (91%) than in simulators (48%). A specification of signals to detect and react to was found present within/for driving less often (59%) than alongside/in conjunction with driving (100%). Likewise, rates of signals (i.e., frequency of signal occurrence) were reported more often for non-driving vigilance tasks (80%) than in driving vigilance tasks (21%). For driving vigilance tasks, the highest overlap was 12 of the 18 features present (67%). On average, results showed relatively low levels of classic feature overlap (36%) with high rates of unspecified feature presence (46%) for driving vigilance tasks compared to non-driving vigilance tasks with higher classic feature overlap (64%) and fewer features unspecified (13%).Conclusion and applicationThere is little overlap between the well-known and often cited vigilance decrement phenomenon and published experimental tasks of driving vigilance. Major differences were also found in the instructions/environmental conditions of simulator versus on-road experimental driving vigilance tasks. What driving vigilance practically is in the real-world thus remains a promising area for future research. We recommend that researchers apply approaches which account for more real-world driving features to better expose and address uncertainty regarding driving and vigilance.     

Sustained attention in normal and in reading-disabled youngsters with and without ADDH

Three groups of children — one normal, one reading-disabled, and one reading-disabled with an additional diagnosis of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH)-were administered the Continuous Performance Test and compared on correct detections and three types of commission errors. All three groups showed a decline in sustained attention over the course of the task but not differentially according to diagnostic group. When younger and older subgroups were compared, the reading-disabled children were found to make significantly more correct detections with increased age, but not when the reading disability was accompanied by ADDH. The latter group of children also were differentiated by a type of commission error, previously associated with impulsive responding, that remained prominent in the older subgroup of dually diagnosed children. Reading-disabled children were differentiated by a second type of commission error which possibly was associated with inattention or short-term memory deficit and which diminished with age.The author would like to thank the staff of St. Patricks School and in particular its principal Sister Patrick Mary for her able administrative support of the study. The author would also like to thank the administration and staff of the Unitas Clinic for their cooperation.     

I can time with a little help from my friends: effect of social enrichment on timing processes in Pigeons (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Columba livia</Emphasis>)

There is evidence that impulsive decision-making is associated with errors in timing. However, there has been little attempt to identify the putative mechanism responsible for impulsive animals’ timing errors. One means of manipulating impulsivity in non-human animals is providing different levels of access to conspecifics. These preclinical models have revealed that social isolation increases impulsive responding across a wide range of tasks. The goal of the present study was to determine whether social isolation modulates time perception in pigeons by inducing more variability or a bias to underestimate the passage of time in temporal judgments. A temporal bisection task was used to characterize time perception. One group of pigeons performed the bisection following social enrichment, and the remaining half of the pigeons were tested following social isolation. Results revealed pigeons in the social isolation condition categorized a temporal stimulus sample as “long” at shorter durations than pigeons in the social enrichment condition. These data highlight the mechanism(s) thought to underlie timing-based interventions aimed at reducing impulsivity in humans. Future work should consider whether impulsivity is produced by misperceptions of time or a reduced threshold for a response.     

Effect of dual tasking on a dynamic balance task in children with and without DCD

The purpose of this study was to compare performance of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and typically developing (TD) children in a dual task paradigm with a dynamic balance task on the Wii Fit as primary task and a concurrent cognitive (counting) or a concurrent bimanual fine motor task as secondary tasks.Using a cross-sectional design, 25 children with DCD and 38 TD children were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (MABC-2) and Divided Attention (DA) task of the KiTAP. Next, the single- and dual-tasks were performed and the level of interference or facilitation of the dual tasks was calculated. Regression analysis determined the predictive value of the DA and MABC-2 component balance outcomes on the dual task performance. On the motor and attentional tasks, the group of children with DCD scored significantly below the level of the TD children. The dual task effect showed similar interference and facilitation of tasks in the different dual-task conditions in both groups.In the dual task-cognitive condition, the divided attention abilities and the MABC-2 balance score predicted 25% of the Wii Fit dynamic balance task performance, whereas in the dual task-motor condition this was higher (31.6%). In both conditions, DA was a stronger predictor than MABC balance score and appears to be an important factor to consider when developing motor task training for children with DCD.     

Effects of speed and accuracy instructions on performance in a visual search task by children with good or poor attention

Children rated by teachers as having good or poor attention ability carried out a visual search task in which they were required to find a series of targets in a complex display. Different groups were told to concentrate on either speed or accuracy. Previous studies using this task have consistently shown that children rated as having poor attention make more errors (false alarms to non‐targets in the display), but do not differ in the time to make a correct response; this result was replicated. Though the instructions produced wide differences in speed and error rates in the expected directions, these differences were similar in both attention groups and the differences in error rates between the two groups remained unchanged. It is suggested that these findings are not compatible with the view that children with poor attention make errors primarily due to fast impulsive responding, nor with an explanation in terms of slower processing of the input by such children. An alternative explanation of the high error rates in such children is offered in terms of weak executive function resulting in poor ability to inhibit false alarms to non‐targets.     

Stimulus-seeking behavior in hyperactive and nonhyperactive children

Auditory and visual stimulus-seeking behavior was measured in hyperactive and nonhyperactive youngsters. The design controlled for motor activity level. The results indicate that hyperactive children preferred auditory stimulation more than the control children. There were no differences in stimulus-seeking preferences in the visual modality. The groups did not differ in motor activity. It was concluded that abnormally high needs for stimulation are important in hyperactivity.The authors would like to express their appreciation to James Fogarty, Superintendent, Walter Galvin, Principal, and the many teachers, students, and parents of the Greene Avenue Learning Center of BOCES II in Sayville, New York for their cooperation and support in this study. We would also like to thank Susan O'Leary, Ph.D. Director of the Point of Woods Laboratory School and the students and parents for participation and support in this study.     

Developmental verbal control of behavior: Implications for self-instructional training

Kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade children (5, 6, and 7 years of age, respectively) performed a Luria-type verbal control task in which motor responses are initiated to positive stimuli and inhibited to negative stimuli. The task was performed by motor responding only and verbal self-directed motor responding, with these conditions reversed in sequence for one half of each grade group. Although motor responding and verbal-motor responding by the two younger groups were generally poor, their performance equalled that of the second graders when the verbalizing condition followed the silent, motor-only condition. For these children, verbalizing appeared to constitute a second task which interfered with motor responding. Prior practice on motor-only responding, however, facilitated subsequent, concurrent performance of the two tasks. No interference or practice effects were found for the second graders. The results suggested that self-instructional training programs are likely to be successful when adequate verbal-motor coordination can be assumed or when the motor response is within the child's repertoire.     

Signal probability effects on high-workload vigilance tasks

Signal probability is an important influence on vigilance. Typically, higher signal probability is associated with higher hit rate, lower response criterion, and lower response:signal ratio. However, signal probability effects on demanding, high-workload vigilance tasks have not been investigated. It is believed that attentional resources become depleted during performance of such tasks, leading to perceptual sensitivity decrements. Forty subjects performed high- (.35) and low- (.10) probability versions of a demanding vigilance task. Results differed in two important respects from those previously obtained with less demanding tasks. First, the decrement in perceptual sensitivity over time was greater for the high-probability task. Second, there were no effects of signal probability on response criterion. Subjective workload was higher for the high-probability task. Implications of the data for resource-depletion and expectancy theories of vigilance are discussed.     

Response Style Differences in the Inattentive and Combined Subtypes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

This study examined potential differences between the inattentive and combined ADHD subtypes using laboratory tasks assessing behavioral inhibitory processes. Seventy-five children completed two tasks of behavioral inhibition believed to isolate different processes: the cued reaction time task (CRT), a basic inhibition task, and the go/no-go task (GNG), a complex inhibition task that incorporates motivational contingencies. Three groups of participants were identified, including ADHD/Inattentive (n = 17), ADHD/Combined (n = 37), and comparison (n = 21). Results indicated that rather than showing behavioral inhibition deficits, the ADHD/I children appeared overly inhibited, as evidenced by slower reaction times across the two tasks and significantly higher errors of omission in the GNG task. Additionally, the ADHD/I children did not demonstrate cue dependency effects on the CRT task, suggesting that they were failing to incorporate relevant information before making a response. The sluggish and inhibited performance of the ADHD/I group challenges the idea that it is a subtype of ADHD.