Time for change: using implementation intentions to promote physical activity in a randomised pilot trial

Objective: A common barrier to exercise is a perceived lack of time. The current pilot study examined the effects of an implementation intention intervention to enhance exercise self-efficacy, increase confidence to exercise when facing time constraints, and increase physical activity in middle-aged adults (n?=?63, aged 35–69). Design: Participants received a pedometer (Fitbit) to objectively measure activity and were randomly assigned to either a control or intervention condition. After a 1-week baseline, the intervention condition received instructions to plan how, where, and when they would add steps to their daily routine to meet their step goal, using personalised schedules and maps. Both groups were contacted nightly via email. Main Outcome Measures: Physical activity (steps and time spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity), goal achievement, exercise self-efficacy, time-relevant exercise self-efficacy and affect. Results: Compared to the control, the intervention condition significantly increased in steps, time spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity, and time-relevant exercise self-efficacy. Goal achievement was related to greater time-relevant exercise self-efficacy and more positive affect at the daily level. Conclusion: Findings suggest that the personalised planning intervention increased physical activity and confidence in achieving physical activity goals under time constraints. Avenues for future directions, especially for producing more sustained effects, are discussed.     

What matters when children play: Influence of Social Cognitive Theory and perceived environment on levels of physical activity among elementary-aged youth

ObjectivesSocial Cognitive Theory (SCT) has often been used as a guide to predict and modify physical activity (PA) behavior. We assessed the ability of commonly investigated SCT variables and perceived school environment variables to predict PA among elementary students. We also examined differences in influences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic students.DesignThis analysis used baseline data collected from eight schools who participated in a four-year study of a combined school-day curriculum and environmental intervention.MethodsData were collected from 393 students. A 3-step linear regression was used to measure associations between PA level, SCT variables (self-efficacy, social support, enjoyment), and perceived environment variables (schoolyard structures, condition, equipment/supervision). Logistic regression assessed associations between variables and whether students met PA recommendations.ResultsSchool and sex explained 6% of the moderate-to-vigorous PA models' variation. SCT variables explained an additional 15% of the models' variation, with much of the model's predictive ability coming from self-efficacy and social support. Sex was more strongly associated with PA level among Hispanic students, while self-efficacy was more strongly associated among non-Hispanic students. Perceived environment variables contributed little to the models.ConclusionsOur findings add to the literature on the influences of PA among elementary-aged students. The differences seen in the influence of sex and self-efficacy among non-Hispanic and Hispanic students suggests these are areas where PA interventions could be tailored to improve efficacy. Additional research is needed to understand if different measures of perceived environment or perceptions at different ages may better predict PA.     

Testing attitudes,social desirability and behavioral regulations as moderators of implicit-explicit exercise discrepancies: A replication study in Iranian students

IntroductionThere is mixed evidence regarding moderators of the relationship between implicitly and explicitly measured constructs. This study examined this issue with evaluations of exercise relative to health or appearance in a sample of Iranian adolescents. Investigaing automatic associations and reflective constructs might provide important implications for developing interventions targeting exercise behavior in a population with different cultural, social, and economic barriers to exercise than European or North American adolescents.MethodsParticipants were 471 students enrolled in grades 9 to 12, of whom 269 (54.9%) were female. Behavioral regulations, explicit attitudes, and social desirability were investigated as possible moderators. All students completed questionnaire measures of physical activity behavior, attitudes, social desieality and behavioral regulation. They also completed two Go/No Go Association tasks to measure automatic associations of exercise with health and apperarance.ResultsAttitude was a significant moderator of discrepancies between automatic associations of exercise with health and health motives. Interjected regulation moderated implicit-explicit appearance discrepancies. Participants with low social desirability and negative automatic appearance associations had the highest appearance motivation.ConclusionsParticipants focused on the potential of achieving positive health outcomes of exercise rather than physical appearance outcomes, which differs from research from other countries. It is possible that, health was strongly linked with exercise by the pervasive societal pressures in Iran to have a healthy body.     

Enhancing self-efficacy and exercise readiness in pregnant women

ObjectivesDespite the benefits associated with exercise during pregnancy, many expectant mothers are inactive.DesignThe present study examined whether persuasive messages could influence task and scheduling self-efficacy, exercise intention, action plans, and behavioral commitment among pregnant women.MethodsAfter completing premanipulation task and scheduling self-efficacy and exercise intention measures, participants (n = 125) were randomly assigned to read one of four efficacy-enhancing messages: scheduling, task, combined scheduling/task, or control. Postmanipulation task and scheduling self-efficacy, intentions and action plans and behavioral commitment were then assessed.ResultsRepeated-measures ANOVAs revealed that compared to the control group, inactive participants who read the persuasive messages reported significant increases in scheduling self-efficacy, task self-efficacy, and intention from premanipulation to postmanipulation as well significantly stronger action plans.ConclusionsWritten persuasive messages may promote exercise behavior during pregnancy by increasing scheduling and task self-efficacy, intention, and action plans for exercise.     

Effect of the SNS-Based Physical Activity-Related Psychological Intervention on Physical Activity and Psychological Constructs among Inactive University Students

Background/ObjectiveThe current study investigated the effects of the physical activity-related psychological intervention via social network service (SNS) on physical activity and psychological constructs in inactive university students.MethodThirty inactive university students participated in the 12-week intervention and received the physical activity-related psychological strategy via SNS. The physical activity levels, stages of physical activity, self-efficacy, pros, and cons were measured at the three time points (baseline, after 6 weeks, and after 12 weeks). Data analyses included frequency analysis, McNemar chi-square (χ²) test, and a repeated measures ANOVA were conducted.ResultsResults indicated that the number of inactive university students gradually decreased across the three different time points, and that a total physical activity of inactive university students significantly increased over the 12-week intervention. In addition, pros and self-efficacy significantly increased but cons gradually decreased over the intervention.ConclusionsThe current study suggests that the SNS-based physical activity-related psychological strategies have positive effects on promoting physical activity and its related psychological constructs for inactive university students.     

Predictors of mental distress and poor physical health among homeless women

Abstract

We tested a latent variable path model in which situational, personal, and social resources predicted several mediators and the key health outcomes of mental distress and poor physical health among 871 homeless women. Mental distress was predicted by risky sexual behavior, less social support, avoidant coping, less self-esteem, client abuse history, social support from deviant sources, less drug self-efficacy and health care utilization. Poor physical health was predicted by a client abuse history, less drug self-efficacy, fewer perceived rewards for drug use, higher perceived costs for drug use, and a doctor visit. Current risky sexual behavior was predicted by a parent drug abuse history, less drug self-efficacy, and more social support from deviant sources. Current drug use was predicted by parent drug abuse history, less drug self-efficacy, more social support from deviant sources and by high perceived costs for drug use. Implications of results for intervention and theory are discussed.     

Social environmental factors and psychological responses to acute exercise for socially physique anxious females

ObjectivesThis study examined whether social-environmental factors influenced the psychological responses to participation in a single session of group fitness exercise for females with heightened body image concerns.Design/MethodsSocially physique anxious female college age students participated in this study (N=99). A randomized 2×2 factorial design was used to examine the effect of leadership style (health versus appearance oriented) and mirrors (present or absent) on affective responses, enjoyment, self-efficacy, and future intentions.ResultsANCOVA revealed that participants in the health oriented class reported more positive affective experiences than those in the appearance oriented classes with effect sizes (ES) ranging from .47 to .61. They also enjoyed exercise more (ES=.40) and reported being more likely to join a similar class in the future (ES=.69). Mirrors did not influence psychological responses by themselves or in conjunction with leadership style.ConclusionsExercise leader behavior influences the quality of the exercise experience for individuals with social physique anxiety by creating a health or appearance oriented class atmosphere.     

Self-efficacy,planning, and preparatory behaviours as joint predictors of physical activity: A conditional process analysis

Objective: Planning can bridge the gap between intentions and action, but what bridges the gap between planning and action? This study helps to answer the question by disentangling the interrelationships between self-efficacy, planning and preparatory behaviours in predicting physical activity. Preparatory behaviours are tested as a working mechanism of planning. Moreover, it is tested whether the utility of preparatory behaviours depends on an individual’s level of self-efficacy.

Methods: A survey assessed planning, self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours for physical activity. Adults (N = 166) provided data at two measurement points. In a longitudinal model, preparatory behaviours were specified as a mediator between planning and physical activity. Self-efficacy was specified as a possible moderator at two points in the model.

Results: Preparatory behaviours mediated the relationship between planning and physical activity. An interaction between self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours on physical activity was found, indicating that individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs were more active if they engaged more frequently in preparatory behaviours.

Conclusion: Planning seems to stimulate preparatory behaviours, which in turn make future physical activity more likely. Furthermore, as performing preparatory behaviours represent a step forward towards the enactment of behavioural goals, preparatory behaviours may be particular beneficial for individuals afflicted by self-doubts regarding physical activity.     

Ethnicity and the theory of planned behavior in an exercise context: A mediation and moderation perspective

ObjectivesMost college students fail to meet recommended exercise levels and ethnic disparities in participation are apparent. The present study examined the moderating and mediating relationships among ethnicity, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), and exercise, and identified common and ethnic-specific beliefs related to exercise.MethodCollege students completed a baseline TPB questionnaire and an exercise assessment at either two-week (n=237 blacks; n=176 whites) or two-month (n=280 blacks; n=273 whites) follow-ups.DesignOne week and two month longitudinal designs.ResultsStructural equation modeling showed that the TPB was invariant by ethnicity in both samples with affective attitudes and perceived behavioral control being significant predictors of intention, which in turn, significantly predicted exercise. Furthermore, analyses showed that the TPB had a small mediating effect on the ethnicity/exercise relationship in both samples. Finally, common and ethnic-specific beliefs were identified that varied by sample.ConclusionThe TPB is a useful framework to explain exercise behavior in black and white students; however, its ability to explain the ethnic disparity in exercise may be limited.     

When seeking influences believing and promotes posttraumatic adaptation

Background: Theory and evidence link social support processes and self-efficacy appraisals in the promotion of adaptation following traumatic events. Dynamic causal processes, however, have not been examined longitudinally or in the context of mass-violence. This study tested whether quantity of social support seeking indirectly reduced distress severity among student survivors of mass university shootings. Hypotheses specified that the indirect effects of social support seeking on distress severity would occur through positively influencing perceived social support and self-efficacy, and that these effects would emerge and become stronger as posttraumatic stress symptom severity increased. Design: Path analysis via Mplus 7.2 was used to test the hypothesized moderated-serial-mediation model (conditional indirect effects). Methods: The sample (N = 1191) consisted of students enrolled at Virginia Tech during the 16 April 2007 shootings. Data were collected via online surveys at two time points, 3–4 months and 1-year post-shootings. Results: Hypotheses were supported, showing that the indirect effects of social support seeking on distress reduction occurred through perceived social support, which in turn influenced self-efficacy. These effects emerged and grew in strength as PTS severity increased. Conclusions: Clinical implications, including the need to consider contextual determinants of posttraumatic recovery, are discussed.     

Does parental support moderate the effect of children's motivation and self-efficacy on physical activity and sedentary behaviour?

Objectives1) To test whether parental support moderates the direct effects of children's motivation and self-efficacy on objectively measured moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time. 2) To explore differences in the relationships between boys and girls.DesignCross-sectional observational study.MethodData were collected from 430 9–11 year old UK children and their parents; parents self-reported on the support they provided to their children to be active (through providing transport, encouragement, watching, or taking part with their child), and children self-reported their motivation and self-efficacy towards exercise. MVPA and sedentary time were measured using accelerometers.ResultsBoth parent- and child-level factors were largely positively associated with children's MVPA and negatively related to sedentary time. There was no evidence of a moderation effect of parental support on MVPA or sedentary time in boys. Parental provision of transport moderated the effect of girls' motivation on week-day MVPA; more motivated girls were less active when transport was provided. Transport and exercising with one's child moderated the effect of motivation and self-efficacy on girls' sedentary time at weekends; more motivated girls, and those with higher self-efficacy were less sedentary when parents provided more frequent transportation or took part in physical activity with them.ConclusionsThe results largely supported a model of the independent effects of parent and child determinants for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, but there was evidence that some types of parent support can moderate sedentary time in girls. Further research is needed to explore the causal pathways between the observed cross-sectional results.     

Exercise Stage of Change and Self-Efficacy in Primary Care: Implications for Intervention

Multiple chronic diseases are caused or complicated by a sedentary lifestyle. Thus, an important and challenging application of psychology in clinical settings is changing the behavior of sedentary primary care patients. This study focused on exercise stage of change and self-efficacy in a sample of adult family practice patients recruited while waiting for their scheduled physician appointment. Regarding exercise stage of change, 15% of respondents were in the Precontemplation stage, 26% in the Contemplation stage, 50% in the Preparation stage, 7% in the Action stage, and 13% in the Maintenance stage. Mean self-efficacy scores for exercise were significantly higher among respondents in the Action and Maintenance stages of change. These cross-sectional data are consistent with the hypothesis that movement through the exercise stages of change could be encouraged by clinical interventions that increase exercise self-efficacy. The identification of multiple personal opportunities for increasing exercise self-efficacy may be clinically useful in this context. Recommendations for psychologists in primary care settings in their work with physicians are offered.     

Behavioral and cognitive correlates of exercise self-schemata

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of exercise self-schemata to both cognitive and behavioral concomitants including exercise self-efficacy, attitudes toward fitness, self-perceptions of fitness, and self-report of exercise behavior. Participants were 161 undergraduate students who subsequently were categorized into groups defined by the authors as "exercise schematics," "nonexercise schematics," "aschematics," and unclassified. Results indicated that exercise schematics reported greater total caloric expenditure, higher frequency of exercise behavior in the past as well as future expectations to exercise, greater self-perceptions of physical fitness, and more favorable attitudes toward fitness than either nonexercise schematics or aschematics. Furthermore, exercise schematics expressed higher levels of exercise self-efficacy than did nonexercise schematics. The results clearly support earlier findings concerning exercise self-schemata and exercise behavior and further indicate that schematics also differ from others in important cognitive-motivational determinants of exercise such as self-efficacy and perceptions of physical fitness. Future research should define the role of exercise self-schemata both theoretically and practically in order to enrich our understanding of and facilitate the enhancement of exercise adherence.     

Effect of autonomy support and dialogic learning on school children’s physical activity and sport

This study applies an intervention based on autonomy support through dialogic learning to examine effects on motivation and the promotion of physical activity and sport involvement during schoolchildren’s leisure time. One hundred and two primary school students, aged 11–13 years, participated (M = 10.93, SD = 0.75). The sample was divided into two groups: an experimental group (49 students) and a control group (53 students). A quasi-experimental study was conducted in physical education classes over the course of 9 months. Assessments of autonomy support from teachers, family, and peers; basic psychological needs; self-determined motivation in physical education and during leisure time; planned behavior variables; physical activity intention; and estimated and actual physical exercise behavior time were included in the model. Following the intervention, the results revealed that greater autonomy support by the teacher, the family and peers, satisfaction of the basic psychological needs, self-determined motivation during physical education class and during free time, greater perceived control, favorable attitude and intention to engage in physical activity contributed to the explanation of student physical activity involvement. These results suggest that when students receive extensive social support from diverse social agents that essential precursors to physical activity are strengthened and contribute to increased motivation and actual physical activity involvement. Efforts to promote effective communications with students and other pedagogical efforts, such as providing dialogic learning opportunities, should be considered in order to strengthen physical activity motivation and involvement in students.     

Self-efficacy and affective responses to short bouts of exercise

Abstract

One of the most commonly cited barriers to exercise participation is lack of available time. Furthermore, the minimum exercise duration required to produce physiological changes has seen considerable attention, whereas the minimum duration required to produce psychological benefits has been largely ignored. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to contrast the effects of 10, 15, and 20 minutes of treadmill running on self-efficacy and affective responses. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that self-efficacy increased in all participants (p < .001). Furthermore, multivariate analyses of variance showed that each condition generated increases in positive well-being and decreases in psychological distress (p's< .05). Correlational analyses of post-exercise assessments indicated that self-efficacy levels were positively related to positive well-being and inversely related to fatigue. These findings suggest that 10 minutes of aerobic exercise is sufficient to enhance exercise-related self-efficacy and affect.     

Decomposing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise: Application to stages of motivational readiness

ObjectivesTwo studies were conducted to evaluate the reliability and predictive validity of measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise, and to examine differences in motivation as a function of stage of motivational readiness for exercise.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed in study one, and a longitudinal design was used in study two.MethodsIn study one, 184 healthy college students completed instruments to measure motivation and exercise stage. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were factor analyzed into subscales and validated in study two on a second sample of college students (n=220) by analyzing shifts in endorsement of motivation subscales from the beginning to end of the academic term.ResultsIn both samples, intrinsic motivation for exercise was most highly endorsed in maintenance and lowest in contemplation stage. All extrinsic motivation subscales except tangible rewards were also most highly endorsed in maintenance compared to other stages. In study two, students in activity classes (n=72) endorsed both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation more than those in lecture classes (n=70). Relative to patterns of physical activity, intrinsic motivation was greater than extrinsic motivation for the continually active group, and decreased for the continually inactive group. Exercise maintenance was fostered by greater intrinsic relative to extrinsic motivation.ConclusionIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be decomposed into meaningful subfactors that are differentially related to exercise adoption and maintenance.     

Shared identity content between leader and follower influences intentional mobilization and challenge and threat states

ObjectivesResearchers have examined how leaders' representation of shared identity content allows them to mobilize group members towards success in competitive tasks. However, research is yet to determine the psychological and physiological implications of shared identity content with a leader when approaching competitive tasks. The present research addresses this gap within a two-phase experimental study, examining the effect of shared identity content on follower intentional mobilization, self-efficacy, perceived control, approach and avoidance goals, cardiovascular challenge and threat and motor performance within a competitive task.DesignA 2 × 2 between-participants two-phase experimental design, with two shared and two non-shared conditions.MethodWithin phase one, 220 sport and exercise undergraduate students imagined themselves in one of four scenarios and responded to measures of mobilization (e.g., willingness to invest time on a task). Then, a pre-screening questionnaire was used to evidence the students' authentic identity content when competing in sport, which informed condition within phase two. Of those who consented to phase two, a laboratory experiment with 120 undergraduate sport and exercise students was used. Within this experiment, the sharedness of identity content between leader and follower was manipulated through the students' authentic pre-screening questionnaire responses. Within phase two, competition related self-efficacy, perceived control, approach and avoidance goals, cardiovascular challenge and threat and motor performance was assessed.ResultsPhase one results indicated that when identity content is shared (vs. non-shared) between leader and follower, group members' willingness to invest time on a task is increased within a hypothetical scenario. In phase two, it was evidenced that when identity content is shared (vs. non-shared) between leader and follower, followers reported greater intentional mobilization, self-efficacy and perceived control when approaching a competitive task. Shared identity content with a leader did not predict cardiovascular challenge states nor greater motor performance (relative to non-shared identity content).ConclusionThe present research provides evidence that a leaders' capacity to mobilize effort of group members and enhance psychological appraisal of competitive events is dependent on their ability to build shared identity content.     

Self-efficacy expectations with regard to different tasks in smoking cessation

Abstract

Self-efficacy expectations are important psychological determinants of smoking cessation. The present study aimed at exploring different sorts of self-efficacy. The following self-efficacy scales were composed: Emotional self-efficacy, Social self-efficacy, Skill self-efficacy, Relapse self-efficacy and Try self-efficacy. In a sample of 752 smokers with low motivation to quit, two subsequent self-report measurements of self-efficacy were conducted. Firstly, we investigated to what extent potential sources of self-efficacy - quitting history and smoking behavior -were related to the types of self-efficacy. The explained variance in self-efficacy scores ranged from 4.4% to 23.1%, and in all five types of self-efficacy, smoking behaviour explained a higher percentage of self-efficacy than quitting history. The number of past quit attempts was only related to Relapse self-efficacy. Secondly, we investigated to what extent the different types of self-efficacy at T1 were predictive of quitting behavior measured at T2. The results showed that only Skill self-efficacy was predictive of quitting activity between Tl and T2. Point prevalence quitting at T2 was predicted by Skill self-efficacy and Relapse self-efficacy. The latter type of self-efficacy, however, was a negative predictor of quitting. The different types of self-efficacy can be mapped on two dimensions: The extent to which the means to accomplish a certain task are specified in the questionnaire item; and the phase of behavior change to which the self-efficacy tasks are relevant. Based on the findings from the predictive validity, it is concluded that the more clearly the means to accomplish the task are specified, the more valid the self-efficacy judgements are.     

The role of self-regulation strategies and self-efficacy perceptions in successful weight loss maintenance

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to identify the self-regulatory strategies which people use to lose, maintain, or manage their weight, and to assess their self-efficacy perceptions to implement these strategies. Thirty-three (N = 33) undergraduate college students were divided into three groups based on their past weight loss experience and confirmed by their current Body Mass Index: (a) overweight participants who tried but failed to lose weight, (b) participants who used to be overweight but lost significant weight and kept it off for at least six months, and (c) participants with an optimal weight. All participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and correlation analyses. Participants who used self-regulatory strategies such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, environmental structuring, time management, social assistance and information seeking were better able to maintain or lose weight. Overweight participants reported significantly less strategy use than participants who had lost weight or who had a healthy weight. In addition, overweight participants had lower self-efficacy perceptions about implementing strategies than did healthy weight participants or participants who had successfully lost weight. Finally, a path analysis revealed that participants who reported high self-efficacy perceptions and applied their strategies persistently in the face of difficulties were more likely to successfully manage their weight.