TRAINING PEERS TO TUTOR: EVALUATION OF A TUTOR TRAINING PACKAGE FOR PRIMARY LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS

Peer tutoring—academic instruction given by a student to a same-aged classmate—can be a cost-effective way of providing needed instruction in the typical classroom where one teacher must deal with many students of varying ability levels. This study evaluated an instructional package as a training method for increasing the use of selected tutoring behaviors by peer tutors. Nine male students, aged 7 to 9 years, from a learning disabilities resource room served as subjects; four subjects served as tutors, four as students, and one as a generalization student who was assigned to all tutors during generalization testing. Subjects were assigned to tutor-student pairs based on their performances on a pretest of the 220 Dolch Basic Sight Words, with the subjects scoring highest on the pretest serving as tutors. Each tutor worked with his assigned student throughout the study, except for pre- and posttest sessions with the generalization student. During daily sessions, tutors trained their students to recognize sight words using 10 flash cards, each with 1 of the Dolch words printed on it. Training was conducted with all four tutors in a group and was evaluated using a multiple baseline design across three classes of tutoring behaviors: Preparation Behaviors, Prompting Behaviors, and Praising Behaviors. Training consisted of: (a) verbal instructions on how to perform the tutoring behaviors; (b) charts illustrating the appropriate tutoring behaviors with stick figures; (c) role playing with each tutor with the experimenter playing the part of the student and giving feedback and verbal reinforcement to the tutor for performance of the appropriate tutoring behaviors; and (d) verbal testing of each tutor by asking him to state orally the behaviors he was to perform. Training sessions took approximately 30 minutes for each of the 3 classes of tutoring behaviors. Results showed an increased use of tutoring behaviors by tutors as a function of the instructional package. Increases in tutoring behaviors were also observed during postintervention generalization testing of tutors instructing their regular student in new subject matter (math). Data taken from pre-, mid-, and postintervention testing of the 220 Dolch Words showed an increase of identifiable sight words by both students and tutors after completing the peer tutoring program. This study demonstrates that a simple tutor training package can be employed to teach young, special education students to serve as effective tutors for their peers. In addition, the academic gains evidenced by the subjects lend positive support to the effectiveness of peer tutoring programs and specifically to the research of Dineen, Clark, and Risley (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10 , 231–238) which demonstrated the educational benefits of tutoring incurred by the tutor as well as by the student.     

Engaging university casual tutors in collaborative reflection for improving student learning outcomes

There is a growing trend in universities to rely on casual tutors to fill the shortfall in permanent teaching staff. However, casual tutors often feel marginalised and excluded from having a voice in designing unit improvements. This research analyses five casual tutors’ perspectives on their teaching, learning, and assessing role. Data were gathered through reflective processes and semi-structured interviews. The research project and findings provide a collaborative model for capturing their input and feedback at critical points in the unit delivery and marking process. The results identify tutors’ insights, concerns, and underlying principles informing their roles. This investigation highlights the importance of listening to casual tutors’ voices. Their views can inform new ways of looking at issues, leading to enhanced student learning and progressing quality teaching.     

The Effects of Minimal and Maximal Peer Tutoring Systems on the Academic Performance of College Students

The effects of two levels of peer tutoring on the academic performance of 193 college students enrolled in two sections of introductory psychology were investigated. In Section 1,10 groups of 3 men and 3 women randomly assigned to 10 undergraduate peer tutors participated in Experimental Condition 1 (E-1). In Section 2, two groups of 20 and 21 students randomly assigned to two undergraduate peer tutors participated in Experimental Condition 2 (E-2). Students not participating in an experimental condition comprised the control groups for each section (C-1 and C-2). The treatment analysis of E1 vs. C-1 and E-2 vs. C-2 revealed significant differences where E-1 and E-2 were clearly superior in academic performance. These data demonstrate that undergraduate peer tutors can enhance the academic performance of college students. Positive ratings by the participating students and peer tutors provide further evidence of the positive program effects.

     

Transmettre la relation de service par l’interaction tutorale: le cas des facteurs

Based on data gathered from naturalistic observation, the article analyses the communicative activity implemented by postmen involved in tutoring users and their apprentices. The occupational situation observed is that of mail distribution, and the critical moments selected are those which bring customer relations into play. We examine the role of the other in the way three tutors pass on their customer relations skills. We show that their means of interaction and understanding situations differ widely.     

Learning from human tutoring

Human one-to-one tutoring has been shown to be a very effective form of instruction. Three contrasting hypotheses, a tutor-centered one, a student-centered one, and an interactive one could all potentially explain the effectiveness of tutoring. To test these hypotheses, analyses focused not only on the effectiveness of the tutors' moves, but also on the effectiveness of the students' construction on learning, as well as their interaction. The interaction hypothesis is further tested in the second study by manipulating the kind of tutoring tactics tutors were permitted to use. In order to promote a more interactive style of dialogue, rather than a didactic style, tutors were suppressed from giving explanations and feedback. Instead, tutors were encouraged to prompt the students. Surprisingly, students learned just as effectively even when tutors were suppressed from giving explanations and feedback. Their learning in the interactive style of tutoring is attributed to construction from deeper and a greater amount of scaffolding episodes, as well as their greater effort to take control of their own learning by reading more. What they learned from reading was limited, however, by their reading abilities.     

The role of the tutor in a college of further education: A comparison of skills used by personal tutors and by student counsellors when working with students in distress

The personal counselling role of the college tutor is compared with the work of the trained student counsellor. A survey questionnaire measuring tutors' perceptions of their role, and identifying skills used in its execution, was administered to a sample of tutors in a college of further education. Another version of the questionnaire was administered to a sample of student counsellors to measure commonly-used skills. It was found that a lot of role confusion exists, that untrained tutors use a smaller range of skills than counsellors, and that they tend more towards advice-giving and directive techniques. They feel unprepared and unsupported in their counselling role.     

Evaluating Check-In Check-Out With Peer Tutors for Children With Attention Maintained Problem Behaviors

School Wide Positive Behavior Support provides schools with three tiers of support to address both academic and behavior challenges. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of peer tutors with three elementary students when applied to a Tier 2 intervention known as Check-In Check-Out (CICO). Peer tutors performed the morning check-in with the tutees by setting the expectations for the day and giving the tutees their Daily Progress Report (DPR) form. Throughout the day, the tutees took the DPR form to each class where they received a score from the teacher. At the end of the class period, the peer tutors provided the tutees with feedback on the scores received on the DPR form. Once the school day finished, the peer tutees checked-out with the tutors and received a reward if they met their percentage goal. The results of this study showed that CICO implemented by peers improved classroom behavior for all three participants.     

Peer Tutoring: Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities to Deliver Time Delay Instruction

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a peer-mediated constant time delay procedure for teaching written spelling to fourth- and fifth-grade students identified as learning disabled. The six peer tutors (each with learning disabilities) taught each other to produce the written spelling for 15 five- to eight-letter words using a 3-s delay and a visual model prompt. A multiple probe design across behaviors (word sets) was used to evaluate the procedure. Data were collected on the number of sessions to criterion, trials to criterion, number and percent of errors, and direct instructional time. The classroom teacher prepared students to serve as tutors using a describe-model-guided practice-feedback sequence. Pre- and post-measures were conducted of generalization of the tutoring procedure as well as observational learning by the tutors. Results indicated that (a) peer tutors reliably implemented the time delay procedure, and (b) the tutor-implemented time delay procedure was effective in teaching written spelling to students identified as learning disabled.     

Training versus nontraining of mothers as home reading tutors

The effectiveness of training mothers as home reading tutors was assessed using a sample of 42 mother-child pairs. The children were aged 8 to 9 yr. Analyses showed that the amount of time parents spent listening to a child read at home was positively related to both reading accuracy and comprehension scores. A short group-program training mothers as home reading tutors achieved the anticipated changes in mothers' behaviours: delayed intervention, increased use of meaning and contextual cues rather than direct word prompts, and greater use of praise. Children's reading accuracy was marginally improved and reading comprehension was significantly increased as a result of training the mothers as home reading tutors.     

Extending the Knapsack: Using the White Privilege Analysis to Examine Conferred Advantage and Disadvantage

This article describes a self-awareness activity that utilizes a directed reading on privilege and a small-group discussion format to examine unearned disadvantage and unearned advantage in one’s life. This exercise can help clinicians to better understand systemic and individual sources of power and privilege in society. Beginning with my previous work on white privilege, students can extend this analysis to other domains of privilege, including, for example, gender, class, sexuality, age, nationality, and physical ability, to name a few. The primary goals of this reflective exercise are to help clinicians understand how clients’ lives are influenced by societal disadvantages and advantages, to encourage a new understanding of oneself, and to increase empathy towards clients.     

Identifying support systems: a mapping exercise

Within systemic training there is an increasing focus on integrating trainees' personal life experiences and beliefs with their practice. In this paper we present a mapping exercise that is used to help trainees explore their own support needs and the resources they draw upon in order to carry out their work. Although this exercise was developed from training carried out with professionals working with refugees it is our belief that it can be used by any professional groups who wish to explore their own support needs within a learning environment.     

Exploring Positive Learning Experiences in the Context of Practical Theological Education

Abstract. This article presents findings from an empirical study exploring student and teacher perspectives on positive learning experiences in practical theological education. Forty‐five students and twenty teachers were interviewed in focus groups in four educational institutions delivering programs in practical theology. The findings indicated that students valued practical theological education when it enabled them to think critically in relation to their personal or professional experience, and that students valued tutors, their peers and a flexible curriculum design in promoting this kind of learning. There was a high correlation between students’ views of positive learning experiences and what tutors perceived as important qualities that they hoped their students would develop. Difficulties associated with the students’ lack of clarity about the learning process and the tensions between academic and professional contexts are also discussed.     

Engagement and the Therapeutic Relationship in Systemic Therapy

This paper is about the therapeutic relationship in systemic therapy and, more specifically, about engagement as a process. Beginning with some practice examples, a critique is made of the way in which both the therapeutic relationship and engagement have been under-theorized in systemic therapy. Two different sets of ideas are used to develop some thinking about the process of engagement: the notion of the 'good-enough' engagement as the environment or frame of therapy is developed, and the systemic concept of sequences is held alongside the psychoanalytic ideas of transference, countertransference and projective identification. This theory discussion is used to reflect on the original practice examples.     

The effects of reward on tutor's behaviors in a cross-age tutoring context

Utilizing a cross-age tutoring context, this study examined the effects of reward on the teaching behaviors of the tutor, the tutor's subsequent motivation to continue to teach during a free choice period, and the social interaction between a tutor and a tutee. Third-grade boys and girls (n = 96) who exhibited a positive reinforcement style were asked to teach six addition problems to a first-grade boy or girl (n = 96). The children were randomly assigned to pairs and to one of the three reward conditions. In the performance-contingent reward condition, the tutors were promised a toy if the first-grader learned all of the arithmetic problems. In the noncontingent reward condition, the tutors were promised a toy for teaching the first-grader. In the no reward condition, the tutors taught the first-grader without promise of a toy. The results indicated that the social interaction was rated lower for the children in the performance-contingent group and that the tutors in this group spent less time teaching during the free choice period. However, neither the tutor's teaching style nor the tutee's post-test performance was adversely affected by the reward.     

Efficacy of constant time delay implemented by peer tutors in general education classrooms

We evaluated the effects of teaching 13 typically developing children to use constant time delay when tutoring three of their peers who had substantial disabilities. We measured the extent to which the tutors used the constant time delay procedure correctly and the tutees' correct performance on the skills being taught. A multiple probe design across behaviors was used. The results indicated that (a) the tutors used each step of the constant time delay with a high degree of procedural fidelity; (b) the students with disabilities acquired the skills that were taught during peer tutoring; and (c) modifications of the procedure were required for 2 of the 3 students with disabilities, and the peers tutors were able to implement the modifications. Implications for practice and future research are described.     

COLLATERAL GAINS AND SHORT-TERM MAINTENANCE IN READING AND ON-TASK RESPONSES BY INNER-CITY ADOLESCENTS AS A FUNCTION OF THEIR USE OF SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT WHILE TUTORING

Two experiments are reported concerning the effects of the differential use of verbal approval by problematic adolescents serving as tutors in a remedial reading program for an inner-city school. The experiments, each with 3 tutors and 15 tutees, used a combined multiple baseline and ABCBC design. Data showed that tutors' approvals as well as tutors' and tutees' on-task and reading responses were low and stable during baseline. Tutors were trained to use verbal approval for tutees' on-task behavior. Tokens were presented and withdrawn to control the tutors' use of approval. During phases in which tutors' approvals were raised via token dispensation, tutor reading and on-task scores increased in a nonexperimental setting. Tutee reading scores also increased as a function of tutor approvals. The second experiment replicated these findings and, in addition, (a) tested the validity of changes in reading responses via standardized tests, (b) isolated and compared the covariance between variables in all phases, and (c) provided data on tutee attention to tutors as a possible natural reinforcer for the short-term maintenance found in both studies. Data are discussed as evidence that tutors had acquired the ability to recruit reinforcement from the classroom for appropriate behavior.     

USING NUMBER LINE PROCEDURES AND PEER TUTORING TO IMPROVE THE MATHEMATICS COMPUTATION OF LOW-PERFORMING FIRST GRADERS

Recommendations for mathematics instruction frequently include the use of manipulatives as a critical component. There are few experimental analyses of teaching strategies involving the use of manipulatives (e.g., the number line). This investigation used a multiple baseline design across three groups of students to examine the effectiveness of an experimental procedure for improving low-performing children's skills in solving missing addend arithmetic problems using the number line. To address concerns about inadequate time for instruction and insufficient practice in most mathematics instruction, trained peer tutors implemented the procedure. The results suggest that student performance improved when trained tutors taught the students number line procedures and gave them feedback on accuracy. Further, social validation data indicate that the students, their tutors, and their classroom teachers liked the procedures.     

Tutoring: Guided Learning by Doing

Individualized instruction significantly improves students' pedagogical and motivational outcomes. In this article, we seek to characterize tutorial behaviors that could lead to these benefits and to consider why these actions should be pedagogically useful. This experiment examined university students learning LISP programming with the assistance of a tutor. Tutoring sessions were audiotaped, allowing u to analyze every verbal utterance during the sessions and thereby to identify the conversational events that lead to pedagogical success. This discourse analysis suggests that tutors are successful because they take a very active role in leading the problem solving by offering confirmatory feedback and additional guidance while students are on profitable paths and error feedback after mistakes. However, tutors carefully structure their feedback to allow students to perform as much of the work as possible while the tutor ensures that problem solving stays on track. These results suggest the types of strategies tutors employ to facilitate guided learning by doing.     

体育锻炼与疲劳关系的综述研究

通过文献综述法简要地总结了疲劳的概念、研究历史及现状,介绍了疲劳的机理研究,探讨了体育锻炼与疲劳的关系及疲劳的判断、消除等。研究结果表明：（1）目前,有关体育锻炼的生理疲劳的研究相当系统、全面;但体育锻炼的心理疲劳的研究相当薄弱、少见。（2）体育锻炼的心理疲劳并非生理疲劳的必然结果,而受个人心理因素以及个体周围环境的影响等等。（3）随着心理健康的日渐重要,未来有关心理疲劳的研究将倍受重视。