Hurt feelings in couple relationships: Exploring the role of attachment and perceptions of personal injury

This research program focused on perceptions of the appraisals and emotions involved in hurtful events in couple relationships. Study 1 tested the broad proposition that hurt feelings are elicited by relational transgressions that generally imply relational devaluation and that evoke a sense of personal injury by threatening positive mental models of self and/or others. Participants (N= 224) provided retrospective accounts of an experience of being hurt by a romantic partner. These accounts, together with expert judges’ ratings, showed that most hurtful events involved relational transgressions that signal both relational devaluation and threat to positive mental models; however, relational devaluation was relatively unimportant in explaining the hurt associated with partners’ distrust. A sense of injury emerged as the dominant theme in open‐ended accounts of emotional reactions; however, other negative emotions also featured and were related to the type of event reported. The emotion terms generated in Study 1 were used as stimuli in a word‐sorting task (Study 2). This study confirmed that many of the terms were perceived specifically as injury related, and shed further light on the link between appraisals and emotions. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The attachment system in fledgling relationships: an activating role for attachment anxiety

Is it sensible to study attachment dynamics between potential romantic partners before they share a full-fledged attachment bond? The present data indicate that such an approach may reveal novel insights about initial attraction processes. Four studies suggest that the state-like experience of attachment anxiety has functional implications within fledgling (i.e., desired or undeveloped) romantic relationships, well before the formation of an attachment bond. Studies 1 and 3 reveal that attachment anxiety directed toward a particular romantic interest is elevated before (in comparison with after) participants report being in an established relationship. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrate that such partner-specific attachment anxiety predicts attachment-relevant outcomes in fledgling relationships, including proximity seeking, safe haven, secure base, passionate love, and other approach behaviors. These associations were reliable above and beyond (and were typically as strong as or stronger than) the effect of sexual desire. Finally, Study 4 presents evidence that partner-specific attachment anxiety may cause several of these attachment-relevant outcomes. Attachment anxiety seems to be a normative experience and may signal the activation of the attachment system during the earliest stages of romantic relationships.     

Emotions as social relationships

While emotions are usually treated as internal states, it is possible to view them as social relationships. From this perspective, the different emotions are not primarily understood in terms of facial expression, physiological pattern, hedonic tone, or level of arousal, but as different transformations of the relationship between person and other. To demonstrate the value of this approach, judgments of the similarity between different emotions were submitted to multidimensional scaling. It is shown that the resulting dimensions describe different aspects of the relation between self and other. These dimensions provide us with a taxonomy of emotions that makes some important distinctions between closely related emotions and leads to some interesting predictions about personality differences.The authors would like to thank David Stevens for his assistance with the statistical analysis, Eric de Rivera for drafting the three-dimensional figures, and James D. Laird and Shula Sommers for their helpful commentary.     

Teacher-child relationships as dynamic systems

The purpose of the present study was to examine factors associated with the quality of the teacher-child relationship from first through fifth grade using data from phases I, II and III of the National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, a prospective study of 1364 children from birth through sixth grade. On average, children evidenced moderately high quality relationships with teachers in fifth grade. However, there was extensive variation in fifth grade relationship quality across children. Children who received more support and stimulation at home and whose parents had higher quality interactions with the school had higher quality relationships. Additionally, children in classrooms with more positive environments and better management had higher quality relationships. Lastly, females, European-American children, children with lower levels of behavior problems and children who had higher quality relationships with their teachers in kindergarten also had higher quality relationships with teachers. On average, children evidenced decreases in the quality of their relationships with teachers from first through fifth grade. Interestingly, children whose parents had more contact with their schools, who were in schools where teachers received higher salaries and in classrooms that had more positive emotional climates and that were better managed evidenced slower rates of decline in relationship quality. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

The masculine role as a moderator of stress-distress relationships

Health psychologists often content that men are more vulnerable to the effects of stress than are women. One explanation of this male risk factor deals with the masculine role — the set of values, beliefs, and expectations traditionally associated with men's lives. The present study was conducted to determine whether the restrictive emotionality, success preoccupation, and inhibited affection aspects of the masculine role, measured by the Masculine Role Inventory [MRI; W. E. Snell, Jr., The Masculine Role Inventory (MRI): Components and Correlates, Rex Roles, 1986] increase not only men's but also women's vulnerability to the effects of stressful life experiences. The results indicated that among both men and women with a recent history of stressful experiences in their lives, the masculine role was associated with elevated distress.Portions of these data were presented at the 1985 annual meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Austin, Texas.     

The female athletic role as a status determinant within the social systems of high school adolescents

This study examined the relationship between female athletic participation and status attainment within the social status systems of high school adolescents. Although earlier research has consistently demonstrated that the athletic role for males is associated with greatest status within the school, findings regarding the status of female athletes have been contradictory: Some studies have found high status rankings for female athletes while others have revealed negative results. It was therefore argued that current research go beyond the general construct of "female athlete" and consider the type of sport with which the adolescent female is associated as a possible status determinant. Employing a sport typology proposed by Metheny (1967), it was predicted that females associated with sex-appropriate or "feminine" sports (e.g., tennis) would receive significantly higher status ratings than those identified with sex-inappropriate or "masculine" sports (e.g., basketball). One hundred and twenty-one male subjects were asked to indicate which female athlete (associated with a sex-appropriate versus a sex-inappropriate sport) they would most like to date, while 111 female subjects were asked to choose which female athlete they would most like to have as a friend. Chi-square analyses revealed that, as predicted, females associated with sex-appropriate sports were given significantly greater status than females identified with sex-inappropriate sports by both male and female subjects. These results suggest that social assessments made about female sport participation within high school status systems remain heavily influenced by traditional beliefs regarding feminine, "ladylike" behavior.     

Perceptions of conflict and support in romantic relationships: the role of attachment anxiety

Guided by attachment theory, a 2-part study was conducted to test how perceptions of relationship-based conflict and support are associated with relationship satisfaction/closeness and future quality. Dating partners completed diaries for 14 days (Part 1) and then were videotaped while discussing a major problem that occurred during the diary study (Part 2). Part 1 reveals that more anxiously attached individuals perceived more conflict with their dating partners and reported a tendency for conflicts to escalate in severity. Perceptions of daily relationship-based conflicts negatively impacted the perceived satisfaction/closeness and relationship futures of highly anxious individuals, whereas perceptions of greater daily support had positive effects. Part 2 reveals that highly anxious individuals appeared more distressed and escalated the severity of conflicts (rated by observers) and reported feeling more distressed. The authors discuss the unique features of attachment anxiety and how changing perceptions of relationship satisfaction/closeness and stability could erode commitment over time.     

The relationship between sex role characteristics,couple satisfaction and couple problem-solving skills

Abstract

This study explored the association between sex roles and relationship adjustment and communication skills. Baucom's (1976) sex role inventory was administered to couples who also reported on their relationship satisfaction and engaged in problem-solving exercises. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed a significant positive relationship between femininity and satisfaction as well as between femininity and positive problem-solving behavior, and a significant negative relationship between femininity and aversive problem-solving strategies. Additional tests revealed no significant relationship between androgyny and either relationship satisfaction or problem-solving strategies. Results suggest that clinical interests might be better served by studies less focused on attempts to validate Bem's model of androgyny.     

The role of attachment in the post-divorce experience

The loss of the spouse resulting from marital breakdown appears to be a central component of post-divorce distress. However, comparatively little empirical research has examined the nature of this broken bond or its impact on the divorced adult. This study tests the hypothesis that the continuing positive feelings for the ex-spouse following divorce are very salient for the individual and are related to increased distress. Sixty recently divorced women selected from court records were randomly assigned to one of three conditions in which they recalled the ex-spouse in a positive, loving interaction (PS); the ex-spouse in a conflictual interaction (C); or a friend in a positive, loving interaction (PS). A post-recall thought sampling procedure was employed to measure the frequency of thoughts about the ex-spouse. The subjects in the PS condition had significantly more post-recall thoughts of the ex-spouse and significantly more thoughts about coping than those in either the C or the PF conditions. The implications of these data for theories of post-divorce adaptation and adult attachment are discussed.     

Suicidal ideation in adolescent psychiatric inpatients as associated with depression and attachment relationships

Examined suicidal ideation in adolescent psychiatric inpatients as associated with depressive symptoms and attachment to mother, father, and peers. Fifty-nine adolescent psychiatric inpatients (25 male, 34 female) completed self-report measures of suicidal ideation, depressive symptoms, and attachment. Attachment to mother accounted for significant variation in levels of depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. In addition, attachment to peers accounted for significant variation in suicidal ideation and girls' (but not boys') depressive symptoms. However, after adjusting for depressive symptoms, attachment variables failed to contribute additional variance in suicidal ideation. Self-reported depressive symptomatology remained the strongest predictor of suicidal ideation, regardless of its order in the regression analyses. Prevention and treatment efforts may focus on mother-adolescent attachment and peer attachment (particularly in girls) to reduce risk for depression and suicidal ideation.     

安全依恋对人际信任的影响:依恋焦虑的调节效应

采用两个实验探讨了安全依恋启动对人际信任的影响,并考察了特质依恋风格的调节效应。实验1采用回忆书写任务启动安全依恋,采用3(启动分组:安全依恋启动,积极情绪启动,中性启动)×3(目标词类型:信任相关词,信任无关词,非词)混合实验设计考察了不同启动分组对信任词汇反应时的影响。结果发现,与积极情绪启动组和中性启动组相比,安全依恋启动能显著提高信任的词汇决策反应时,特质依恋焦虑起调节效应。实验2采用被试间设计,考察安全依恋启动对信任博弈任务中信任决策的影响,结果发现,安全依恋启动组被试在信任决策中分配的金额显著高于中性组被试,特质依恋焦虑起调节效应。研究结果验证了安全依恋对人际信任的"拓延–建构环"效应,对于促进社会信任的提升具有积极的现实意义。     

The role of social cognition in emotion

Although recent research has shown that social cognition and emotion engage overlapping regions of the brain, few accounts of this overlap have been offered. What systems might be commonly or distinctively involved in each? The close functional relationship between social cognition and emotion might be understood in terms of a central role for mental state attribution in the understanding, learning and regulation of emotion. In each of these cases, mental state attributions might be supported by either stimulus-driven or more reflective processes.     

The role of testosterone in social interaction

Although animal researchers established the role of testosterone as a 'social hormone' decades ago, the investigation of its causal influence on human social behaviors has only recently begun. Here, we review and discuss recent studies showing the causal effects of testosterone on social interactions in animals and humans, and outline the basic neurobiological mechanisms that might underlie these effects. Based on these recent findings, we argue that the role of testosterone in human social behavior might be best understood in terms of the search for, and maintenance of, social status.