Interest as a Motivational Resource: Feedback and Gender Matter, but Interest Makes the Difference

This study tested the hypothesis that interest in a certain topic enables children to sustain their intrinsic motivation in topic-related tasks when positive feedback is absent. Ninety-one Israeli children in the seventh grade completed a questionnaire assessing their interest in the topic of logic questions. Later, in individual sessions, children worked on logic questions, and either received positive feedback or no feedback on their performance. Then, they completed a questionnaire assessing their intrinsic motivation to participate in a similar task. As expected, children with a high level of interest reported more intrinsic motivation than did children not high on interest. Among children with moderate interest, absence of positive feedback was associated with decreased intrinsic motivation for boys, and increased motivation for girls. This gender-related pattern was interpreted as suggesting that girls with moderate interest perceived the positive feedback as an attempt to control them. The findings support the view that interest may serve as a personal resource that helps children to cope with non-optimal learning conditions.     

Self-determined motivation in physical education and its links to motivation for leisure-time physical activity, physical activity, and well-being in general

The present study tested a trans-contextual model based on self-determination theory of the relations between motivation in physical education, motivation in leisure-time physical activity, physical activity, and psychological well-being. Participants were 329 Norwegian upper secondary school students (M age = 16.5 yr., SD = 0.7). Students' perceptions of autonomy-supportive teachers in physical education were expected to be positively associated with students' psychological needs satisfaction in physical education, which was expected to be positively related to autonomous motivation for physical education participation. In turn, autonomous motivation for physical education was expected to be positively associated with perceived competence and autonomous motivation for leisure-time physical activity, which both were expected to be positively associated with leisure-time physical activity and psychological well-being in general. Structural equation models and bootstrapping supported the hypotheses and the indirect links between variables. Sex differences indicate that more research is needed on how to motivate girls to be more physically active in leisure time.     

Motivation for Dental Home Care: Testing a Self‐Determination Theory Model1

The present research developed the Self‐Regulation for Dental Home Care Questionnaire (SRDHCQ), based on self‐determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), and used it in an SDT process model of dental health behaviors and self‐rated oral health. In this model, patients' perceptions of autonomy‐supportive (relative to controlling) dental professionals were expected to positively predict patients' psychological needs satisfaction in treatment. Needs satisfaction was expected to be positively related to autonomous motivation for dental home care and perceived dental competence, which were expected to be positively associated with self‐rated oral health and dental health behaviors. Confirmatory factor analysis of the 5‐factor SRDHCQ model fit the data very well, and a structural equation model supported the hypothesized process model.     

基于行动者-对象相互依赖模型探究牺牲动机对亲密关系满意度的影响

目的:探究牺牲动机对亲密关系满意度的影响以及知觉到对方牺牲动机的中介作用。方法:对168对情侣采用亲密关系满意度、牺牲动机和知觉到对方的牺牲动机量表来测量,并运用行动者-对象相互依赖模型进行分析。结果:行动者效应:知觉到对方的牺牲趋近动机是牺牲趋近动机和关系满意度的中介变量。对象效应:只发现女性的牺牲趋近动机通过正向影响男性知觉到的牺牲趋近动机从而正向影响男性的关系满意度。结论:本研究有助于理解恋人双方做出牺牲行为背后的动机对于双方关系满意度的影响。     

Self-determination as a moderator of demands and control: Implications for employee strain and engagement

Does job control act as a stress-buffer when employees’ type and level of work self-determination is taken into account? It was anticipated that job control would only be stress-buffering for employees high in self-determined and low in non-self-determined work motivation. In contrast, job control would be stress-exacerbating for employees who were low in self-determined and high in non-self-determined work motivation. Employees of a health insurance organization (N = 123) completed a survey on perceptions of role overload, job control, work self-determination, and a range of strain and engagement indicators. Results revealed that, when individuals high in self-determination perceived high job control, they experienced greater engagement (in the form of dedication to their work). In addition, when individuals high in non-self-determination perceived high job demands, they experienced more health complaints. A significant 3-way interaction demonstrated that, for individuals low in non-self-determination, high job control had the anticipated stress-buffering effect on engagement (in the form of absorption in their work). In addition, low job control was stress-exacerbating. However, contrary to expectations, for those high in non-self-determination, high job control was just as useful as low job control as a stress-buffer. The practical applications of these findings to the organizational context are discussed.     

On how task-contingent rewards,individual differences in causality orientations,and imagery abilities are related to intrinsic motivation and performance

This study explored how causality orientations, individual differences in imagery, and reward contingency are related to performance and intrinsic motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory, as applied to both causality orientation and reward contingency, was used to make predictions about the effects of internal or external events perceived as being autonomy supportive or controlling. In the light of the fact that task-contingent rewards must be salient to undermine intrinsic motivation and performance, one can suppose that high imagery may increase the controlling aspects of task-contingent rewards. Moreover, research now indicates that vegetative activation correlates with levels of imagined effort, and that high imagery capabilities enhance performance in motor skills. The main purpose of this study was to contribute some arguments for imagery and reward interaction effects on intrinsic motivation and performance. As predicted, autonomy-oriented subjects reported more interest and intrinsic motivation, and exhibited better performance than did control-oriented individuals. Similar differences were observed in favour of high-imagery individuals. Moreover, the effects of imagery were not only subject to an interaction between imagery and causality orientation, but also between imagery and reward contingency. The links between these variables are discussed in the framework of both Carver and Scheier's (1981) motivational control theory, and Deci and Ryan's (1985a) cognitive evaluation theory. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Role of Workers’ Motivational Profiles in Affective and Organizational Factors

We used latent profile analyses to understand how the different forms of motivation proposed by self-determination theory combine with each other and how they relate to some organizational factors (i.e., perceived organizational support and procedural justice) and well-and ill-being indicators (i.e., work engagement, quality of working life, work satisfaction, job anxiety, and burnout). The research draws upon quantitative data collected by means of a questionnaire that was administered to 328 employees (Study 1) and 521 employees (Study 2) from various French companies. Results revealed that workers characterized by the two most autonomous motivational profiles displayed higher levels of work engagement, quality of working life, and work satisfaction, and lower levels of burnout and job anxiety than those with low levels of autonomous motivation, and introjected and external regulations (Low AU/INR/EXR profile), and those with moderate levels of autonomous motivation, moderate to high levels of introjected regulation, and moderate levels of external regulation (Mod AU/INR/EXR profile in Study 1 and Mod AU–High INR–Mod EXR profile in Study 2). Of interest is that the High AU–Low INR/EXR and High AU/INR–Low EXR profiles did not differ on well- and ill-being. In addition, perceived organizational support and procedural justice were associated with a greater probability of belonging to the High AU–Low INR/EXR and High AU/INR–Low EXR profiles, taking the Low AU/INR/EXR profile as a referent. The present research contributes towards a better understanding of the links between workers’ motivational profiles and affective and organizational factors.     

The assumed effects of positive feedback paired with success on motivation to do a task: The cases of characters with high and low initial levels of interest

This study investigated the effects of positive feedback paired with success on motivation to do a task, and examined whether this differed according to whether the person performing the task had a high or low initial level of interest in that task. Subjects (448 junior college students) were asked to rate (from 0–10) the level of motivation of characters in four different stories. Subjects believed that positive feedback would encourage the character to do a task regardless of initial level of interest. However, when positive feedback could not be expected, ratings for motivation fell. Ratings for motivation were further analyzed when no positive feedback could be expected, either after an earlier experience of positive feedback paired with success or after success only (no feedback). In the case of a low initial level of interest, it was assumed that motivation would be increased after positive feedback, but in the case of a high initial level of interest motivation was assumed to be decreased by an earlier experience of positive feedback paired with success. These results suggest that the effect of positive feedback paired with success will differ according to the level of a person's initial interest.     

Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: the importance of context

Two studies examined how contextual cues influence the impact of receiving instructions for improving performance on intrinsic motivation. The authors proposed that whether instruction enhances or decreases motivation depends on the salience of performance goals. Goal salience was proposed to be a function of how an individual defines the activity, which, in turn, may be influenced by contextual features. To test this hypothesis, the authors used a computer game that emphasized fantasy in addition to skill, and they varied the presence of contextual cues highlighting performance. In Study 1, the authors varied the presence of prior performance feedback, and found that instruction decreased interest only when no prior performance feedback (positive or negative) was received. In Study 2, the authors explicitly manipulated contextual salience by describing the activity's goals as either skill- or fantasy-related. Instruction decreased interest in the fantasy-emphasis context, but increased interest in the skill-emphasis context. Furthermore, when instruction matched perceived goals Ss experienced greater positive affect while performing the task. The implications for models of intrinsic motivation are discussed.     

Behavioral Change in Earthquake Preparedness Due to Negative Threat Appeals: A Test of Protection Motivation Theory

Using protection motivation theory as a conceptual framework, the current investigation examined the effects of a negative, threat-inducing persuasive message on the change in earthquake preparedness over a 5-week period of time. One hundred eleven California home owners read a persuasive message which manipulated their beliefs along four dimensions: subjective probability of a large earthquake, expected severity of earthquake damage, perceived effectiveness of earthquake preparedness, and perceived capability of preparedness. The dependent measure was behavioral change in earthquake preparedness. The results indicated that the manipulations produced a significant change in the earthquake preparedness behavior of the subjects. Furthermore, the independent variables interacted in theoretically meaningful ways.     

Autonomy and reactions to health-risk information

It has been suggested that autonomy promotes enhanced reflection on novel information and reduces defensive or biased information processing. This study investigated how autonomy affected people's reactions to known versus novel health-risk information in relation to three behaviours: sun exposure, alcohol consumption and salt intake. Participants (N = 321) completed a measure of autonomy, read either known or novel health-risk information and reported their relative autonomous motivation, attitudes, perceived behavioural control, subjective norm and intentions towards reducing the health-risk behaviour concerned. In line with our hypotheses, the results showed that higher autonomy participants reported greater relative autonomous motivation towards reducing health-risk behaviours than did lower autonomy participants; this effect was mediated by perceptions of the information as less freedom-threatening. The expected interaction between Autonomy and Information Type was not observed. The results indicate that autonomy is associated with greater relative autonomous motivation to engage in health behaviours, and that autonomous motivation may subsequently influence intentions to reduce health-risk behaviour following exposure to health-risk information.     

Adverse Housing Conditions and Early‐Onset Delinquency

Housing constitutes an important health resource for children. Research has revealed that, when housing conditions are unfavorable, they can interfere with child health, academic performance, and cognition. Little to no research, however, has considered whether adverse housing conditions and early‐onset delinquency are significantly associated with one another. This study explores the associations between structural and non‐structural housing conditions and delinquent involvement during childhood. Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) were employed in this study. Each adverse housing condition was significantly associated with early‐onset delinquency. Even so, disarray and deterioration were only significantly linked to early delinquent involvement in the presence of health/safety hazards. The predicted probability of early‐onset delinquency among children exposed to housing risks in the presence of health/safety hazards was nearly three times as large as the predicted probability of early‐onset delinquency among children exposed only to disarray and/or deterioration, and nearly four times as large as the predicted probability of early‐onset delinquency among children exposed to none of the adverse housing conditions. The findings suggest that minimizing housing‐related health/safety hazards among at‐risk subsets of the population may help to alleviate other important public health concerns—particularly early‐onset delinquency. Addressing household health/safety hazards may represent a fruitful avenue for public health programs aimed at the prevention of early‐onset delinquency.     

Predictors of situational disengagement in the academic setting: The contribution of grades,perceived competence,and academic motivation

Background. Although psychological disengagement is a well‐documented phenomenon in the academic setting, the attempts to identify its predictors are scarce. In addition, existing research has mainly focused on chronic disengagement and less is known on the determinants of situational disengagement. Aims. The purpose of the present study was to identify the predictors of situational disengagement in a physical education (PE) setting. In line with the core postulate of psychological disengagement, it was hypothesized that grades contribute to discounting through a decrease in perceived competence. Drawing upon self‐determination theory, it was also expected that devaluing reflects the motivational orientations of individuals. Sample. A total of 120 students who were in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Method. Students were asked to report their motivation towards PE and their perceived competence at the beginning of a 10‐week cycle. Perceived competence in PE and psychological disengagement were assessed at the end of cycle, after grades were communicated individually to each student. Results. The results revealed that grades significantly predicted discounting, through perceived competence, but did not predict devaluing. Devaluing was negatively predicted by integrated and identified regulations, and positively predicted by amotivation, whereas no motivational variables were related to discounting. Conclusion. The present study extends the core postulate of psychological disengagement to situational disengagement. It revealed that students may temporarily disengage their self‐esteem from performance feedback through discounting, but are less inclined to devalue the academic domain when faced with negative feedback in a particular situation because of their motivational orientations.     

Studying Early Adolescents' Academic Motivation,Social-Emotional Functioning,and Engagement in Learning: Variable- and Person-Centered Approaches

This study used variable- and person-centered data analytic techniques to examine how early adolescents' academic motivation and social-emotional functioning were associated with their self-reported cognitive and behavioral engagement in the middle school classroom. Regression results showed that both motivational and mental health constructs contributed to the prediction of individual differences in classroom engagement. Person-centered analyses revealed between group variation in classroom engagement as a function of differing patterns of motivation and mental health among different subgroups of adolescents. Convergent and complementary information on these subgroups was provided by using two different grouping approaches. Findings are discussed in terms of broad patterns of promise or problems during early adolescence.     

The dread factor: how hazards and safety training influence learning and performance

On the basis of hypotheses derived from social and experiential learning theories, we meta-analytically investigated how safety training and workplace hazards impact the development of safety knowledge and safety performance. The results were consistent with an expected interaction between the level of engagement of safety training and hazardous event/exposure severity in the promotion of safety knowledge and performance. For safety knowledge and safety performance, highly engaging training was considerably more effective than less engaging training when hazardous event/exposure severity was high, whereas highly and less engaging training had comparable levels of effectiveness when hazardous event/exposure severity was low. Implications of these findings for theory testing and incorporating information on objective risk into workplace safety research and practice are discussed.     

Dimensions of the severity of a health threat: the persuasive effects of visibility, time of onset, and rate of onset on young women's intentions to prevent osteoporosis

Examined the persuasive effects of information about different aspects of the severity of a health threat. The research participants were 170 young women who were at risk for osteoporosis because they neither consumed an adequate amount of calcium daily nor performed an adequate amount of weight-bearing exercise. A message describing osteoporosis as disfiguring and highly visible increased beliefs in its severity and strengthened intentions to adopt the communicator's recommended preventive responses. In addition, compared with control conditions, describing the threat as likely to occur in the near future, as opposed to the distant future, also strengthened intentions. Furthermore, motivation to prevent osteoporosis remained high regardless of whether subjects believed it might occur to them in the near or distant future if they believed it was highly visible or disfiguring. The rate of onset (sudden or gradual) had no effect on intentions. Several implications for preventive health psychology are discussed. First, health promotion campaigns should, whenever possible, emphasize the immediate onset of a health threat and any visible features. Second, in order to convince people a health threat can be severe, the sudden rate of onset should be emphasized whenever possible.     

Gender and the Choice of a Science Career: The Impact of Social Support and Possible Selves

This study examined the relationships among perceived social support, beliefs about how one would fare in a science career, and perceptions and choice of a career in science. Participants were 48 men and 33 women from the Midwestern United States who had been identified as gifted in mathematics and science and participated in a high school science enrichment program. They ranged in age from 24 to 28?years old, and the sample was predominantly White (83.3%). Participants completed an online measure approximately 10?years after the program ended examining their sources of support and beliefs about the self as a scientist to see how these variables influence perceptions of a science career and actual career. We expected that the relationship between perceived support from people and current job held would be mediated by participants’ beliefs about their personal life as a scientist in the future. Similarly, we expected that the relationship between a perceived supportive environment and having a science career would be mediated by participants’ beliefs about their career as a scientist in the future. Findings indicated that social support contributed directly to men’s and women’s ability to envision themselves in a future science career, which, in turn, predicted their interest in and motivation for a science career. No significant gender differences were found in the predictors of men’s and women’s perceptions and choice of a science career. Implications for recruitment of students into scientific majors and careers are discussed.     

Effects of stuttering severity and therapy involvement on attitudes towards people who stutter

The purpose of this study was to explore whether stuttering severity or therapy involvement had an effect on the attitudes that individuals who do not stutter reported towards people who stutter (PWS). Two hundred and sixty (260) university students participated in this study. Direct survey procedures consisting of a 25-item semantic differential scale were utilized. Comparisons of the effects of stuttering severity, level of therapy involvement, and the interaction of these variables were completed. Results suggested that both stuttering severity and therapy involvement had significant effects on participants' attitudes towards PWS. Findings of this study support past research studies that has found that individuals who stutter mildly are perceived more positively than those who are severe. Similarly, the data supported past research that has found that PWS that attend therapy are perceived more positively than those who do not attend therapy. Surprisingly, the interaction of these variables was not significant. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will be able to: (1) explain the possible effects of listeners' attitudes toward stuttering on the lives of PWS; (2) discuss how different factors might alter listeners' attitudes towards stuttering; (3) delineate how stuttering severity and involvement in therapy might impact listeners' attitudes towards PWS.     

A Model of Online Protection to Reduce Children’s Online Risk Exposure: Empirical Evidence From Asia

Children are surrounded by a variety of digital media and are exposed to potential risks that come with such easy accessibility. Learning how to be safe online is an important consideration for both children and their caregivers. The present study proposes an integrated model of online safety based on constructs from protection motivation theory and the health belief model, namely perceived severity of (and susceptibility to) risk, online self-efficacy, online privacy concern, and digital literacy. The study comprised a survey conducted among 420 schoolchildren aged 9–16 years. Using partial least squares-structural equation modelling, the results illustrated the presence of a negative effect of ‘perceived severity of online risk’ toward online risks, whereas the effect of ‘digital literacy’ was found to be positive. Children whose perception of online risks was more severe were less exposed to online risks if they had higher ‘online privacy concerns’ than the children with higher ‘digital literacy’ who are more exposed to online risk. Results of the study show that engaging in safe online behaviour requires children to have a high perception regarding severity of online risks as well as knowledge of online privacy concerns. Online risks and opportunities occur in parallel. Consequently, the factors that increase or decrease risk may also increase or decrease the benefits.     

The effects of visual context and individual differences on perception and evaluation of modern art and graffiti art

Traditionally, artworks are seen as autonomous objects that stand (or should stand) on their own. However, at least since the emergence of Conceptual Art in the 1920s and Pop Art in the 1960s, art lacks any distinctive perceptual features that define it as such. Art, therefore, cannot be defined without reference to its context. Some studies have shown that context affects the evaluation of artworks, and that specific contexts (street for graffiti art, museum for modern art) elicit specific effects (Gartus & Leder, 2014). However, it is yet unclear how context changes perception and appreciation processes. In our study we measured eye-movements while participants (64 psychology undergraduates, 48% women) perceived and evaluated beauty, interest, emotional valence, as well as perceived style for modern art and graffiti art embedded into either museum or street contexts. For modern art, beauty and interest ratings were higher in a museum than in a street context, but context made no difference for the ratings of graffiti art. Importantly, we also found an interaction of context and individual interest in graffiti for beauty and interest ratings, as well as for number of fixations. Analyses of eye-movements also revealed that viewing times were in general significantly longer in museum than in street contexts. We conclude that context can have an important influence on aesthetic appreciation. However, some effects depend also on the style of the artworks and the individual art interests of the viewers.