Errors in Planning and Decision-making and the Nature of Human Information Processing

Cet article aborde la question de la régulation de l'action humaine dans le contrôle des systémes hautement complexes. La "régulation de l'action" recouvre l'intéraction de la fixation des objectifs, des activités de prévision, de l'élaboration des hypothèses, du planning, de la prise de décision et de la réflexion. Des erreurs et des fautes caractéristiques relevant du planning et de la prise de décision sont décrites et rapportées à divers aspects du système humain de traitement de l'information. Beaucoup de fautes et d'erreurs renvoient à un nombre restreint de caractéristiques de l'esprit humain. On montre en outre qu'il n'est en rien facile d'échapper à ces fautes puisque ces processus de traitement de l'information que détient l'esprit humain sont parfaitement fonctionnels dans d'autres contextes.
This article deals with human action regulation when controlling very complex systems. "Action regulation" means the interaction of goal elaboration, forecasting activities, hypothesis formation, planning, decision making, and self reflection. Typical errors and mistakes in human planning and decision making are reported and related to characteristics of the human information processing system. It is demonstrated that a lot of very different errors and mistakes are based on a few characteristies of the human mind. Additionally we demonstrate that it is in no way simple to avoid these mistakes, as these information processing characteristies of the human mind are otherwise quite functional in a number of contexts.     

文盲文字加工的行为和脑机制

文盲作为一个特殊的被试群体,对其的研究一直备受关注。文盲研究最初集中在文盲的口语加工和语音意识等方面。其后比较关注文盲字词的语音和语义加工。随着脑成像技术的发展,对文盲的文字加工脑认知机制进行了研究,探讨脑功能组织是如何受到早期学习的调制,左侧梭状回在字词识别中的作用及其文盲脑功能偏侧化问题。以后此类研究应关注文盲字词识别学习过程中的脑功能变化和文化认知对认知老化的影响等科学问题。     

The Nature and Origin of Rational Errors in Arithmetic Thinking: Induction from Examples and Prior Knowledge

Students systematically and deliberately apply rule-based but erroneous algorithms to solving unfamiliar arithmetic problems. These algorithms result in erroneous solutions termed rational errors. Computationally, students' erroneous algorithms can be represented by perturbations or bugs in otherwise correct arithmetic algorithms (Brown & VanLehn, 1980; Langley & Ohilson, 1984; VanLehn, 1983, 1986, 1990; Young S O'Sheo, 1981). Bugs are useful for describing how rational errors occur but bugs are not sufficient for explaining their origin. A possible explanation for this is that rational errors are the result of incorrect induction from examples. This prediction is termed the “induction hypothesis” (VanLehn, 1986). The purpose of the present study was to: (a) expand on post formulations of the induction hypothesis, and (b) use a new methodology to test the induction hypothesis more carefully than has been done previously. The first step involved teaching participants a new number system called NewAbacus, a written modification of the abacus system. The second step consisted of dividing them into different groups, where each individual received an example of only one port of the NewAbacus addition algorithm. During the third and final step, participants were instructed to solve both familiar and unfamiliar types of addition problems in NewAbacus. The induction hypothesis was supported by using both empirical and computational investigations.     

面部表情识别与面孔身份识别的独立加工与交互作用机制

面孔识别功能模型认为,面部表情识别与面孔身份识别是两条独立的并行路径。以往诸多研究者都认可并遵循二者分离的原则。但近期研究表明,面部表情识别与面孔身份识别存在交互作用。首先总结和分析已有的面部表情识别的研究成果,评述神经心理学与认知神经科学研究中的论争,然后介绍人脸知觉的分布式神经机制以及相关的实验证据,最后提出面部表情识别与面孔身份识别的多级整合模型,并展望研究前景。     

亲组织非伦理行为的形成机制：一个交互模型的检验

基于亲组织非伦理行为的“亲组织”与“非伦理”双重特征,构建了一个亲组织非伦理行为形成机制的交互模型。实证结果表明,领导成员交换关系和工作不安全感不仅均对亲组织非伦理行为具有直接正向影响,两者对亲组织非伦理行为还存在一定的交互效应。个人-集体主义正向调节工作不安全感与亲组织非伦理行为的关系。     

亲组织非伦理行为的形成机制：一个交互模型的检验

基于亲组织非伦理行为的“亲组织”与“非伦理”双重特征,构建了一个亲组织非伦理行为形成机制的交互模型。实证结果表明,领导成员交换关系和工作不安全感不仅均对亲组织非伦理行为具有直接正向影响,两者对亲组织非伦理行为还存在一定的交互效应。个人-集体主义正向调节工作不安全感与亲组织非伦理行为的关系。     

新婚夫妻互动行为对婚姻质量的即时效应和状态效应

采用观察法对106对新婚夫妻在问题解决和社会支持任务中的行为进行录像,并采用在中国被试中经过修订的IFIRS进行编码;以即时互动满意度和夫妻报告的婚姻质量分别作为即时效应和状态效应的预测指标,检验夫妻互动行为两种效应的不同。结果发现:(1)妻子在4个互动中的消极行为均显著高于丈夫;妻子在自己的问题解决和丈夫社会支持话题中的积极卷入显著高于丈夫,妻子的积极情绪在丈夫社会支持互动中显著高于丈夫。(2)就即时效应而言,妻子的消极行为在丈夫问题解决和自己的社会支持情境中均具有主客体效应;丈夫的消极行为和积极情绪分别在自己的社会支持和问题解决情境中具有主体效应;丈夫的积极卷入在丈夫和妻子问题解决情境中分别具有主体效应和客体效应。(3)就状态效应而言,丈夫的积极卷入在丈夫问题解决和妻子社会支持情境中均具有主客体效应,在妻子问题解决和丈夫社会支持中均具有主体效应;妻子的积极情绪在丈夫问题解决情境中具有主体效应,丈夫的积极情绪和消极行为在妻子问题解决情境中均具有客体效应。     

论人格、交往行为与人际关系和谐

人格,作为人在实践活动中生成的内在精神要素和外在行为规范的系统结构,是以自我意识为核心的,是在与环境的交互作用中形成的,并被主体吸纳为自身的一种本质力量.人格影响和制约着人的交往行为,合理化的交往行为对人格的修养具有促进作用.良好的人格修养和交往行为合理化,是实现人际关系和谐的现实需要与重要标志,使整个社会成员形成良好的价值取向、交往行为模式,能够协调人际关系和规范社会秩序,有利于和谐人际关系的构建.     

Distinguishing Context Effects From Context Errors in Judgments of Behavior1

Context effects (assimilation and contrast) are examined in relation to accuracy in judgments of stimuli. Context effects are distinguished from context errors. This is shown to depend on one's definition of true scores, rater tendencies (leniency-severity) relative to true scores, and the direction and magnitude of observed context effects. The framework is illustrated empirically in a study of contrast effects involving performance judgments. Implications for reliability, validity, and agreement of behavior judgments in practice are explored.     

Gender Processing in Speech Production: Evidence from German Speech Errors

The present study investigates the relationship between gender processing and the properties of speech errors. Studying German noun substitution errors it was found that intended and intruded nouns were more often of the same grammatical gender than one would expect by chance (identical gender effect). In the present study, German slips of the tongue were investigated on the assumption that the occurrence of the identical gender effect depends on the processing level, where the error arises. The syntactic context preceding errors of nonidentical gender was also explored. In the German language, interactions of nonidentical gender nouns often result in agreement violations. It can be shown that gender congruency between nouns and preceding articles also depends on the processing level at which the noun error occurs. The results are consistent with two-stage models of lexical retrieval and speech production, according to which the syntactic information of a noun is only represented during the first stage of lexical access.     

Subject and Experimenter Errors in Behavioral Research with Particular Reference to Motor Behavior

Sources of error stemming from S and E and their interaction were identified, their prevalence in behavioral science research discussed, and means for eliminating or discounting them suggested. The findings reviewed indicated that E may bias his findings by indicating to S the demand characteristics of the experimental situation. S errors include such behavior as trying to be over-helpful, attempting to defeat E’s intentions, and the Hawthorne effect. Errors from E may arise by transmitting subtle cues to S as to the hypothesized outcome of the experiment, E’s various characteristics, situational factors, and intentional errors. The applicability of these errors to mo tor behavior research was discussed.     

The Interactive Effects of Affective Demeanor,Cognitive Processes,and Perspective-Taking Focus on Helping Behavior

Abstract

The author manipulated affective demeanor (positive or negative) and cognitive processes (positive or negative) displayed by a target person, along with the perspective-taking focus (affect or cognitions) of participants, to assess the unique and interactive effects of those variables on the participants' helping behavior, operationalized as time volunteered to help other students. An ethnically diverse sample (N = 109) of U.S. working adults (mean age = 31.56 years, SD = 8.21) viewed a videotape of a female target talking about returning to college. Participants adopting an affective perspective-taking focus volunteered more time than did those who adopted a cognitive perspective-taking focus. Also, a significant interaction between participants' perspective-taking focus and target's affective demeanor revealed that participants who focused on the target's feelings and who viewed a warm, cheerful target volunteered more time than did the other groups. Moreover, a significant interaction between participants' perspective-taking focus and target's cognitive processes revealed that the participants who focused on the target's feelings and who viewed a confused and unfocused target volunteered more time than did the other groups. The author also discusses the relationship between empathy, personal distress, and helping.     

Effects of Attractiveness and Nature of Request on Helping Behavior

Abstract

The effects of American college students' appearances and the nature of their requests for assistance were investigated in a field experiment. Well- and poorly dressed students asked directions from randomly chosen passersby to either higher-status (a tennis club) or lower-status (a thrift shop) locations. Results indicated that the greatest assistance, measured as the amount of time spent by subjects giving directions, was given to poorly dressed students who asked directions to the lower-status location.     

More than the Terrible Twos: The Nature and Severity of Behavior Problems in Clinic-Referred Preschool Children

The primary goals of this study are to describe the nature and severity of disruptive behavior problems in clinic-referred preschoolers from low-income environments and to explore the validity of DSM-IV disruptive disorders for young children. We examine the relation between DSM-IV symptoms, standardized behavior checklists, and observational ratings as a means of exploring measurement validity in this age group. Seventy-nine clinic-referred preschoolers (ages 2 through 5 years) from low-income environments were assessed. To examine whether clinic-referred preschool children have symptoms that are consistent with DSM-IV disruptive behavior disorders, parents were administered a semistructured diagnostic interview, modified for developmentally appropriate usage. In addition, parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and children's behavior problems were assessed with observational ratings during parent–child interaction. Nearly half of the sample met criteria for conduct disorder, and three quarters met criteria for oppositional defiant disorder. Preliminary evidence for the validity of DSM-IV disruptive disorders in preschool children was demonstrated through association with CBCL scores, behavior ratings, and significant levels of impairment. Future efforts aimed at validating these diagnoses in preschoolers and implications for prevention are discussed.     

消费决策中羊群行为的启发式加工及产生根源

消费决策中的羊群行为是消费市场上的一种典型现象.它是指在不确定情境中,消费者模仿他人进行消费决策的行为.本研究通过两个实验逐步揭示了消费决策中羊群行为的产生根源.实验1研究表明,消费决策中的羊群行为是消费者利用一致性启发式或能力启发式加工信息的结果.实验2通过内隐联想测验进一步研究表明,个体使用两种启发式的原因在于消费者对大众和专家的刻板印象:他们总是认为大众和专家的决策是正确的.     

Parsing Reality: The Interactive Effects of Complex Syntax and Time Pressure on Cognitive Processing of Television Scenarios

In a variety of domains, complexity has been shown to be an important factor affecting cognitive processing. Complex syntax is 1 of the ways in which complexity has been shown to burden cognitive processing. Research has also shown that the determination of a message's truth, or reality, is affected by message complexity. Cognitive burden has been shown to cause unrealistic events to be judged as more real. Two experiments investigate the effects of syntactic complexity on the typicality assessment of previously rated typical and atypical television scenarios. Complex syntax exhibited a curvilinear effect on reality assessment, such that highly typical events became more unreal and highly atypical events became more real, whereas moderately typical scenarios were unaffected. The cognitive load added by complex syntax appeared to limit the processing of both reality and unreality cues. Adding time pressure was expected to increase cognitive load; however, it appeared to reverse the effects of complex syntax. Participants' syntax recognition results suggested that the complex syntax did burden processing as predicted. Tests with response latencies indicated that atypical scenarios and scenarios described with complex syntax were more slowly recognized.     

The Interactive Influences of Friend Deviance and Reward Dominance on the Development of Externalizing Behavior During Middle Adolescence

This study investigated the interactive effects of friend deviance and reward dominance on the development of externalizing behavior of adolescents in the Child Development Project. Reward dominance was assessed at age 16 by performance on a computer-presented card-playing game in which participants had the choice of either continuing or discontinuing the game as the likelihood of reward decreased and the likelihood of punishment increased. At ages 14 and 16, friend deviance and externalizing behavior were assessed through self-report. As expected, based on motivational balance and response modulation theories, path analysis revealed that age 14 friend deviance predicted age 16 externalizing behavior controlling for age 14 externalizing behavior. Reward dominance was a significant moderator of the relationship between friend deviance and externalizing behavior. The contributions of deviant friends to the development of externalizing behavior were enhanced by adolescents' reward dominance.