小学儿童对习俗时间的周期性特点的认知

本研究探讨了小学儿童对习俗时间周期性特点的认知发展．实验任务是让被试判断两个给定日期之间的时间距离是正向接近还是反向接近。结果表明:儿童对习俗时间的周期性特点的认知成绩随年龄增长而不断提高;随着两个日期之间距离的增大,反应时不断增加,正确率不断降低,在两个日期相互接近的方向发生改变的边界处,反应时最长,正确率最低,表现出显著的“距离效应”和“边界效应”;儿童可以利用数字系统进行判断,他们的认知加工策略包括计数、数字运算和凭借习俗时间的空间表象进行模拟加工等等。     

判断框架对时序知觉位置启动效应的影响

研究采用包含两种判断框架（判断刺激出现的先后次序）的时序判断任务探讨了决策偏向对时序知觉位置启动效应的影响。实验结果表明,时序知觉中存在着位置启动效应,而且在两个靶刺激出现时间间隔不同时,被试在“哪个靶刺激先出现”和“哪个靶刺激后出现”两种判断框架下的正确率存在显著差异,但在两个靶刺激同时出现时并没有出现显著的判断框架效应。因此,本研究推测时序知觉位置启动效应的作用机制不仅包括知觉增强加工过程,而且也与认知决策有关,这为反应偏向理论提供了新的支持证据。     

数字加工任务影响时距知觉的数字效应

本研究采用复制时距和数字加工双任务,探讨数字大小影响时距知觉的机制。实验首先呈现不同时距的圆点,然后让被试按键复制圆点呈现的时距,与此同时,对屏幕上出现的数字进行命名(实验1)、奇偶数判断(实验2)、大小判断(实验3)。实验结果发现对数字进行奇偶数判断时,数字大小对时距知觉没有影响;进行数字命名和大小判断任务时,数字大小对时距知觉都产生了影响,并且时距不同,数字大小对时距知觉的影响也不同。该结果表明时距知觉的数字效应与数字加工任务和时距长短有关,呈现出动态变化的过程。     

任务转换对SNARC效应的抑制

采用任务转换范式,要求被试判断呈现数字的大小或奇偶性,考察了任务转换对SNARC效应的影响。结果发现:任务重复组被试对小数字用左手反应更快,对大数字用右手反应更快,任务重复组被试在数字认知加工中出现了经典的SNARC效应。相反,任务转换组被试在数字认知加工中未出现SNARC效应。由此可以推测,任务转换对SNARC效应具有抑制作用。     

多层次格式塔双向加工模型:汉字输入中形码的认知加工机制*

采用2(笔画数:多笔画、少笔画)×2(结构特征:构型对称、构型非对称)×4(频级:4级)三因素的被试内设计,通过分析29名有效被试的平均反应时和平均正确率来探讨纵横码认知加工的规律,从而揭示汉字输入中形码的认知加工模型,结果发现:(1)形码的认知加工没有显现出笔画效应、频率效应,说明其基本加工单元与汉字知觉的基本加工单元不同。(2)在反应时上存在形码码数的差异,码数少的反应时显著快于码数多的,系列加工的方式非常明显。(3)结构效应显著,且错误码识别的平均反应时显著更慢,而平均正确率更低,符合多层次格式塔双向加工模型的假设。     

场认知方式对心理旋转影响的实验研究

采用2个2 × 2×6三因素混合设计实验,以图形和数字为实验材料,探讨能反应个体能力水平差异的场认知方式对心理旋转的影响.两个实验结果均表明(1)场认知方式的主效应显著,场独立性的被试比场依存性的被试反应时短,且正确率高;两类被试的反应时、正确率曲线具有一致的变化趋势;(2)图形和数字的心理旋转反应时呈倒"V"形状,反应时随着旋转角度的增加而增加,180°时反应时最长,以180°为界,曲线两侧的变化趋势对称;(3)正确率随着旋转角度的增加而降低,呈现"V"状,180°时正确率最低,曲线两侧的变化趋势对称.     

加法运算中数学知识和语义知识的整合

采用语义启动数字匹配任务及其变式, 探讨在中文背景下“和效应”和语义系统的类比一致性及其产生机制。结果发现, 中国学生对“和”目标数字的反应时显著长于对中性目标数字, 表明“和效应”是人类的一种强烈的认知倾向; 人类通过类比映射方式整合数学知识和语义知识; 影响语义加工的因素同样影响数学认知。研究还发现, 被试对中性目标数字的抑制难度受语义匹配任务性质的影响, 在完成类别不一致的探测词匹配任务时, 拒绝中性目标数字的反应时显著长, “和效应”消失, 表明“和效应”不仅源自于对“和”目标数字的激活, 也源自于对中性目标数字的抑制。     

4～6岁儿童未来时间认知教学的实验研究

本研究在Friedman实验范式的基础上,增加了“系统教学”变量,探究教学与4~6岁儿童未来时间认知能力发展的关系。结果表明:(1)“教学”是影响儿童未来时序认知的主要因素;(2)“点估计策略”与“习俗时间单元概念策略”是两种主要时间认知策略;(3)儿童未来时间认知策略的发展遵循从感性直观到抽象概括的发展规律;(4)“教学”是影响其未来时间认知策略的主要因素;(5)4岁儿童已能区分未来事件的时距信息,且其未来时距认知具有分段性。     

背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响

前瞻记忆是指形成和保持一个意向直到合适的情境或时间再执行的一种记忆任务。由于在执行背景任务的过程中保持和提取前瞻意向, 使成功执行前瞻记忆任务与加工背景任务之间存在着相互影响。保持前瞻记忆意向对背景任务的反应时和正确率有影响的现象称之为前瞻干扰效应。本研究通过操纵背景任务刺激间时距的两个实验, 考察了背景任务刺激间时距长度对时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系的影响。结果发现随着背景任务刺激间时距缩短, 两类前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系发生了变化, 且在背景任务刺激间时距长度不同的情况下执行时间性前瞻记忆任务时, 被试查看时钟的策略也有差异。提示了时间性前瞻记忆任务与事件性前瞻记忆任务认知加工机制上的不同。     

7岁超常和常态儿童的信息加工速度

该研究以超常和常态儿童各25名(平均年龄分别为6岁10个月和6岁11个月)为被试,以选择反应、图形匹配、心理旋转、和抽象匹配为基本认知任务,对超常和常态儿童的信息加工速度作了比较研究。研究者对被试的正确率和反应时作了分析。结果表明：(1)超常儿童基本信息加工能力显著优于普通儿童,具体表现在反应时更短,或正确率更高。(2)超常儿童与常态儿童信息、加工的差异与任务难度有关,在选择反应和图形匹配任务中,超常儿童的反应时显著短于常态儿童。而且,在图形匹配任务中,任务难度越大,差异越显著。而在心里旋转和抽象匹配任务中,超常儿童的正确率显著高于常态儿童。(3)任务的难度无论对超常组被试还是常态组被试的反应时及反应正确率都有影响,但影响方式不太一样。在反应时上,随着任务难度的增加,两组被试的反应时都明显延长;但在正确率上,则随着任务难度的增加,常态组被试的正确率降低,而超常组被试的正确率基本稳定在一个较高的水平上,即任务难度问的差异不显著。     

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IN COGNITIVE ORGANIZATION UNDERLYING STROOP TASKS OF JAPANESE ORTHOGRAPHIES

Cognitive processes underlying Stroop interference tasks of two Japanese orthographies, hiragana (a phonetic orthography) and kanji (a logographic orthography) were studied from the developmental point of view. Four age groups (first, second, third graders, and university students) were employed as subjects. Significant interference was yielded both in the hiragana and in the kanji version. Performance time on interference task decreased with age. For elementary school children, the error frequency on the interference task was higher than that on the task of naming patch colors or on the task of reading words printed in black ink, but the error frequencies did not differ among tasks for university students. In the interference task more word reading errors were yielded in the kanji version than in the hiragana version during and after third grade. The findings suggested that (1) the recognition system of hiragana and of kanji becomes qualitatively different during and after third grade, (2) the integrative system, which organizes cognitive processes underlying Stroop task, develops with age, and (3) efficiency of the organization increases with age.     

The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra

The knowledge required to solve algebra manipulation problems and procedures designed to hasten knowledge acquisition were studied in a series of five experiments. It was hypothesized that, as occurs in other domains, algebra problem-solving skill requires a large number of schemas and that schema acquisition is retarded by conventional problem-solving search techniques. Experiment 1, using Year 9, Year 11, and university mathematics students, found that the more experienced students had a better cognitive representation of algebraic equations than less experienced students as measured by their ability to (a) recall equations, and (b) distinguish between perceptually similar equations on the basis of solution mode. Experiments 2 through 5 studied the use of worked examples as a means of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge needed for effective problem solving. It was found that not only did worked examples, as expected, require considerably less time to process than conventional problems, but that subsequent problems similar to the initial ones also were solved more rapidly. Furthermore, decreased solution time was accompanied by a decrease in the number of mathematical errors. Both of these findings were specific to problems identical in structure to the initial ones. It was concluded that for novice problem solvers, general algebra rules are reflected in only a limited number of schemas. Abstraction of general rules from schemas may occur only with considerable practice and exposure to a wider range of schemas.     

Analog and semantic models of judgments about the months of the year

This study tested undergraduates’ ability to judge cyclic relations between the months of the year, days of the week, and buildings around a campus square. On each trial, a pair of month, day, or building names was presented. Subjects judged whether the second stimulus was closer to the first going forward or backward in time (or clockwise/counterclockwise around the square). For all three contents, response times and errors increased as the second stimulus approached the direction boundary. The results can be explained by the types of analog models used to account for the symbolic distance effect for bipolar continua. In contrast, semantic models of the symbolic distance effect appear to be poorly suited for explaining how cyclic comparisous are made.     

The effect of a masked stimulus on the response to the masking stimulus

Four experiments are reported in which the subjects had to respond to a target that masked a preceding prime via metacontrast masking. In one part of Experiment l, the subjects discriminated the target's shape (square or diamond) by a motor-choice reaction, and in another part they had to respond with a simple reaction. The prime was neutral (circular) with respect to the target's shape. The data showed a facilitation effect. In both tasks the reaction time was reduced by the masked prime. However, the reduction was more pronounced with simple reaction than with choice reaction. In the other experiments, additional primes were used with the same angular shapes as the targets. In Experiments 2 and 3, after discriminating the target's shape by a choice reaction, the subjects had to judge the prime's shape in a signal-detection task. While neither the d' value for discriminating the angular primes from the circular ones (Exp. 2) nor the d' value for distinguishing between the angular primes (Exp. 3) was different from zero, the choice-reaction data showed a congruency effect. With a congruent prime (i.e., a prime that had the same shape as the target), the reaction times were reduced. With an incongruent prime, the reaction times grew. In Experiment 4 the errors were investigated. The facilitation effect was present in the RT, but not in the number of errors, whereas the congruency effect was present in the number, but not in the RT of errors.While the facilitation effect can be attributed either to an unspecific activation by the masked prime or to an influence of the prime on attentional processes, the congruency effect can be explained by the assumption that the masked prime directly activates the specific response, which corresponds to the prime's shape.     

Simple and complex mental addition across development

Students in Grades 1, 4, 7, and 10 were timed as they solved simple and complex addition problems, then were presented similar problems in an untimed interview. A manipulation of confusion between addition and multiplication, in which multiplication answers were given to addition problems (3 + 4 = 12), revealed evidence for the hypothesized interrelatedness of these operations in memory only in 10th graders. The overall pattern of results suggests a strong reliance on memory retrieval, even in the first-grade group, with discernible time differences when “procedural” knowledge of carrying is required for problem solution. The results were judged consistent with a fact retrieval model which invokes explicit procedural information when problem difficulty is high or when processes like carrying and estimating magnitudes are required. In agreement with several other reports, the overall slowing of performance to larger problems is best explained in terms of normatively defined problem difficulty or associative strength in memory.     

量词肯定句和否定句的理解

本研究试图探索人们对舍有“所有”、“每一个”、“有一些”等量词的肯定句、否定句和双重否定句的理解。要求成人被试尽快判断呈现在计算机屏幕上的句子和哪一幅图画的内容相符。结果表明,影响反应时的因素为(1)句子的表层结构和它的底层意义的一致程度;(2)句子的意义和从图画中得出的命题的一致程度;(3)句子中使用的量词。结果还表明,否定句的判断时间不一定全都比肯定句的长。     

On the relationship between category intensions and extensions in children

We contrasted four theories of natural language category acquisition by investigating the relation between category intensions and extensions in children (kindergarteners, second graders, fifth graders) and in college students. Everyone was asked to define a category term, to make category membership judgments of possible exemplars, and to judge whether the possible exemplars possessed features generated by them and by previous adult subjects. Adult judges were also asked to judge whether the possible exemplars possessed the features generated by the subjects. Children's intensions and extensions were very consistent. In addition, children's extensions were reliably smaller than adults', and the features which children generated were more specific than those generated by adults. None of the existing theories discussed can explain this pattern of results. An exemplar-based model is proposed to do so.     

应用题结构分析训练对提高小学生解题能力的实验研究

实验以小学四年级学生为被试,采用完全随机化等组设计。实验组采用应用题结构分析训练教学模式,控制组在同等时间内,采用常规教学模式作相同的习题练习。实验结果表明：（１）应用题结构分析训练可显著提高小学生解应用题的能力,中等生受益最大;（２）该模式训练效果与学生的智力水平呈中等程度正相关;（３）学生对该训练模式持肯定态度,反应积极。     

Effects of hierarchical organization on children's judgments of distance and direction

The impact of the hierarchical organization of a space on judgments of direction and distance was assessed in two studies using two-dimensional models analogous to those used by A. Stevens and P. Coupe (1978, Cognitive Psychology, 10, 422–437). In each study the models contained two stars and were divided into two parts by a curved boundary line. In the Homogeneous condition the stars were located in the same subsection. In the Congruent condition the leftmost star was in the left subsection and the rightmost star was in the right subsection. In the Incongruent condition the rightmost star was in the left subsection and the leftmost star was in the right subsection. In Experiment 1 first graders, third graders, and college students were required to remember the location of the stars. Results indicated that the first and third graders tended to use the relationship between the subsections as a clue to the relationship between the sites within them, thus extending the results of Stevens and Coupe (1978) to children. In Experiment 2 preschoolers, first, and third graders were asked to judge with the materials directly in front of them, which of the two stars was closer to a site located in one of the subsections. Results indicated that the Incongruent condition led to errors among the preschoolers and first graders but not the third graders, thus indicating that these groups tended to judge as closer the site within the same subsection even though it was really farther away. The results of both studies are discussed as indicative of a tendency among young children to impose organization on information encoded in memory and in relation to increases in metric accuracy, decentration, and efficient scanning which enable them to more accurately evaluate when such organization is and is not appropriate. Implications for behavior in large-scale environments are also discussed, with particular reference to the effect of barriers on perceptions of distance and direction.