A Meta‐Analytic Structural Model of Dispositonal Affectivity and Emotional Labor

The exponential growth of the service economy has increased the attention that organizational researchers have paid to the concept of emotional labor. Although much progress has been made in the field, few studies have provided an integrated picture of how individual dispositions, perceived display rules, and emotional labor behaviors shape employee outcomes. To clarify and compare results across this growing body of literature, a quantitative review was developed, along with a theoretically derived path diagram of key emotional labor constructs. Evidence from our structural meta‐analytic model based on 116 primary studies demonstrates that examining affective dispositions and emotional labor constructs and the pattern of positive and negative results helps to clarify and add specificity to the literature. Results were consistent with the perspective that surface acting emotion regulation strategies have a pattern of negative relationships with work outcomes of job satisfaction and stress/exhaustion (but not with job performance), whereas deep acting emotion regulation strategies have a pattern of positive relationships with all of these work outcomes.     

Perceived Organizational Support as a Moderator of Emotional Labor/Outcomes Relationships

The current study investigates the interactive effects of perceptions of organizational support on 2 emotional labor outcomes: job satisfaction and job performance. A sample of 2 retail service firms ( n  = 338) supported the moderating effect of perceived organizational support (POS) on the emotional labor/outcomes relationships. POS attenuated the negative effects of the emotional labor/job satisfaction and emotional labor/performance relationships. Implications of these results, strengths and limitations of the current study, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation,Emotional Experiences at Work,and Work‐related Outcomes: A Two‐Study Investigation

The relationships among individual differences in emotion regulation (i.e., habitual tendencies to use reappraisal vs. suppression), employee emotions at work, and job performance and satisfaction were examined with 2 samples. Results indicated that reappraisal was positively associated with positive emotions and negatively associated with negative emotions. However, different from prior research, no emotional correlates were found for suppression. Further, it was found that job satisfaction was positively associated with positive emotions and negatively associated with negative emotions. Self‐rating of job performance was positively related to positive emotions, but was not significantly related to negative emotions.     

Effects of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression on daily work-related outcomes: Comparison between younger and older Chinese workers

The existing models of emotion regulation (ER) do not make any specific prediction about the differential effects of the same ER strategy among individuals of different ages. However, such assumption may not be necessarily true, given that older adults emphasise emotional goals greater than their younger counterparts. Using a daily diary approach, this study investigated whether the effects of cognitive reappraisal (CR) and expressive suppression (ES) on daily work-related outcomes would vary by age when individuals were experiencing negative events at work. A total of 141 Chinese managerial employees (M_age = 42.40, SD = 9.16) completed the diary report for 15 consecutive workdays by recording their daily work experiences. The results of the multilevel analyses showed that age moderated the effects of ES on daily negative emotions, perceived work stress, and job satisfaction. More beneficial effects were observed among older workers than among younger workers. By contrast, the use of CR significantly lowered the levels of negative emotions and perceived work stress for both younger and older workers. These findings revealed the importance of considering the role of age in evaluating the effects of ES on work-related outcomes, which provides important implications for future research and training programs in ER.     

Relationships between leaders' and subordinates' emotion regulation and satisfaction and affect at work

The study examined relationships between leaders' emotion regulation and leaders' and subordinates' work-related outcomes. Fifty-one school directors and 281 teachers reported on their strategies of emotion regulation (reappraisal, suppression), job satisfaction, and affect at work. For subordinates, suppression was negatively related to job satisfaction and was positively related to negative affect and emotional exhaustion, and reappraisal was positively related to job satisfaction and negatively to negativ affect. In contrast, multilevel analyses found that directors' use of reappraisal was neg atively related to subordinates' job satisfaction, and directors' use of suppression wa positively related to subordinates' positive affect. Leaders' suppression interacted wit group cohesion to predict subordinates' negative affect. This is one of the first studies to find evidence for the possible tension between leaders' emotion regulation competencie and organizational-role interests.     

Transformational leadership and customer service: A moderated mediation model of negative affectivity and emotion regulation

Integrating theories from leadership, emotion management, affectivity, and customer service, this study examines how transformational leadership leads to favourable customer intentions via the mediation of service employees' emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and their service performance and via the moderation of employee negative affectivity. Results obtained from data of 204 matched sets of managers, service employees, and customers show that the effect of transformational leadership on amplification of pleasant emotions was conditioned on service employees' negative affectivity. Employee service performance partially mediated the effect of job satisfaction on customer outcomes. Finally, overall results reveal that transformational leadership and amplification of pleasant emotions were more strongly related to the customer outcomes, as mediated through the intervening variables in the model, when negative affectivity was high than when negative affectivity was low. Results have implications for how service workers with negative affectivity can manage their emotions to achieve effective service outcomes through interactions with a leader, how the effect of transformational leadership can be bounded, and how transformational leadership and emotion regulation are relevant to customer service.     

The primacy of perceiving: emotion recognition buffers negative effects of emotional labor

There is ample empirical evidence for negative effects of emotional labor (surface acting and deep acting) on workers' well-being. This study analyzed to what extent workers' ability to recognize others' emotions may buffer these effects. In a 4-week study with 85 nurses and police officers, emotion recognition moderated the relationship between emotional labor and work engagement: Workers with high emotion recognition engaging in emotional labor did not report lower work engagement after 4 weeks, whereas those with low emotion recognition did. These effects pertained to both surface and deep acting. The results suggest that emotional labor be not necessarily detrimental to workers' engagement. Instead, the impact of emotional labor hinges upon workers' ability to correctly identify interaction partners' emotions.     

员工负性情绪对情绪劳动策略的影响

情绪劳动指的是员工在工作中按照组织的要求来调节自己的情绪感受和表达, 是服务行业普遍关注的问题。本研究基于自我调节理论(Self-Regulation Theory), 探讨了员工个体内负性情绪对情绪劳动策略的影响效应, 以及个体间水平上员工工作年限和情绪智力对该效应的跨层次调节作用。通过分析收集自210名呼叫中心员工14个工作日的追踪数据, 本研究发现员工每天的负性情绪显著抑制了深层动作; 工作年限和情绪智力显著调节了个体内负性情绪对情绪劳动策略的影响效应。数据分析结果支持了情绪劳动的研究中自我调节理论的作用, 本研究也据此讨论了理论意义和实践应用价值。     

IS EMOTIONAL LABOR MORE DIFFICULT FOR SOME THAN FOR OTHERS? A MULTILEVEL,EXPERIENCE‐SAMPLING STUDY

In response to 2 areas for development in the emotional labor literature—(a) the contemporaneous associations between emotional labor and affective reactions, and (b) whether emotional labor might be more personally costly for some employees than others—this study tested a conceptual model explaining the differential effects of deep and surface acting on job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion via their asymmetrical influences on mood, and whether extraverts fare better when engaging in emotional labor. As expected, surface acting was positively associated with negative mood, and this explained some of the association of surface acting with increased emotional exhaustion and decreased job satisfaction. Contrary to hypotheses, deep acting was unrelated to job satisfaction and was associated with lower positive affect. Extraversion moderated several emotional labor relationships such that, in general, surface and deep acting had more positive (or less negative) effects for extraverts (compared to introverts). Overall, the results support the importance of considering the roles of mood and disposition in the impact of emotional labor.     

Emotional labor demands and compensating wage differentials

The concept of emotional labor demands and their effects on workers has received considerable attention in recent years, with most studies concentrating on stress, burnout, satisfaction, or other affective outcomes. This study extends the literature by examining the relationship between emotional labor demands and wages at the occupational level. Theories describing the expected effects of job demands and working conditions on wages are described. Results suggest that higher levels of emotional labor demands are associated with lower wage rates for jobs low in cognitive demands and with higher wage rates for jobs high in cognitive demands. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Cookies,Disposition, and Job Attitudes: The Effects of Positive Mood-Inducing Events and Negative Affectivity on Job Satisfaction in a Field Experiment

Reasoning from findings in a variety of literatures, three hypotheses were advanced: (1) negative affectivity (NA), a disposition to experience aversive emotional states, is associated negatively with job satisfaction; (2) positive mood-inducing events at the time of questionnaire administration increases job satisfaction; and (3) NA and positive mood-inducing events interact such that the effects on job satisfaction of positive events are weaker among high NA individuals than it is among low NAs. Support was obtained for all three hypotheses among a sample of 57 hospital workers randomly assigned to attend on-site questionnaire administration sessions at which small gifts (e.g., cookies) were or were not distributed. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of the need to broaden further theoretical perspectives on job satisfaction. More generally, they also are discussed in reference to the study of the effects of NA and mood on judgments.     

工作家庭两不误为何这么难？基于工作家庭边界理论的探讨

为探讨工作家庭冲突对员工工作态度和行为倾向的影响, 以国内某大型制造企业集团位于北京、杭州、西安等地7家分公司的545名员工为样本, 采取问卷调查法在两个不同时段获取数据, 考察了角色压力(角色冲突、角色模糊和角色超载)在工作干涉家庭和家庭干涉工作这两种对偶冲突模式与员工工作满意度和离职意向之间的中介作用机制。结果显示：角色压力在工作家庭冲突与工作满意度和离职意向之间起到完全中介作用, 工作满意度在角色压力和离职意向之间起到部分中介作用。结论有助于分析工作家庭冲突的深层原因并采取恰当的干预策略, 降低工作家庭冲突对员工工作态度和行为倾向的负面影响。     

Job satisfaction and women's spheres of work

Job satisfaction for women workers is traditionally researched from the job-gender model in which sex roles generate the research framework. Women employed in the labor market are viewed as responding primarily to the confines of sex roles, as opposed to the structural rewards and constraints of the labor market itself. We reexamined earlier studies that found no effect of the labor market on job satisfaction for women. Reanalysis of the 1972–1973 Quality of Employment national survey revealed significantly different levels of job satisfaction, which are in part structured by the characteristics of the labor market sectors in which women and men work. Women working in labor market sectors that are predominantly male or have a balanced proportion of male and female workers jobs have high job satisfaction. This job satisfaction is predicted almost exclusively by their perceptions of fewer income problems, flexibility of hours, and use of job skills. Factors related to maternity benefits and leaves are related only marginally to job satisfaction for women workers in either labor market sector. Women in predominantly female sectors of the labor market have similarly high job satisfaction scores, but these are related to a wider cluster of factors, including fewer perceived income problems, skills, and challenge factors, as well as the socioemotional rewards of their work. This pattern is most similar to males who work in predominantly male sectors. In contrast, males who work in predominantly female or gender-proportionate jobs have significantly lower job satisfaction scores, even after controling for income issues and other benefits. Labor market sectors and the rewards available within them are important structural dimensions of job satisfaction for women and men employees.     

Emotional Labor and Burnout: Comparing Two Perspectives of “People Work”

Although it has often been presumed that jobs involving “people work” (e.g., nurses, service workers) are emotionally taxing (Maslach & Jackson, 1982), seldom is the emotional component of these jobs explicitly studied. The current study compared two perspectives of emotional labor as predictors of burnout beyond the effects of negative affectivity: job-focused emotional labor (work demands regarding emotion expression) and employee-focused emotional labor (regulation of feelings and emotional expression). Significant differences existed in the emotional demands reported by five occupational groupings. The use of surface-level emotional labor, or faking, predicted depersonalization beyond the work demands. Perceiving the demand to display positive emotions and using deep-level regulation were associated with a heightened sense of personal accomplishment, suggesting positive benefits to this aspect of work. These findings suggest new antecedents of employee burnout and clarify the emotional labor literature by comparing different conceptualizations of this concept.     

Emotional dissonance,emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction in call centre workers

The rapid rise of the service sector, and in particular the call centre industry has made the study of emotional labour increasingly important within the area of occupational stress research. Given high levels of turnover and absenteeism in the industry this article examines the emotional demands (emotional labour) of call centre work and their relationship to the job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion in a sample of South Australian call centre workers (N?=?98) within the theoretical frameworks of the job demand?–?control model, the effort?–?reward imbalance model, and the job demands?–?resources model. Qualitatively the research confirmed the central role of emotional labour variables in the experience of emotional exhaustion and satisfaction at work. Specifically the research confirmed the pre-eminence of emotional dissonance compared to a range of emotional demand variables in its potency to account for variance in emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. Specifically, emotional dissonance mediated the effect of emotional labour (positive emotions) on emotional exhaustion. Furthermore emotional dissonance was found to be equal in its capacity to explain variance in the outcomes compared to the most frequently researched demand measure in the work stress literature (psychosocial demands). Finally, emotional dissonance was found to exacerbate the level of emotional exhaustion at high levels of psychosocial demands, indicating jobs combining high levels of both kinds of demands are much more risky. Future theorizing about work stress needs to account for emotional demands, dissonance in particular. Potential ways to alleviate emotional exhaustion due to emotional dissonance is to reduce other psychosocial demands, increase rewards, support and control as conceptualized in the JDR model. Ways to boost job satisfaction are to increase control, support, and rewards.     

Perceived organizational support‐burnout‐satisfaction relationship in workers with disabilities: The moderation of family support

Our study tests the perceived organizational support‐burnout‐satisfaction relationship based on stressor–strain–outcome model of stress (Koeske & Koeske, 1993 ) and on the conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989 ) in workers with disabilities employed in ordinary or competitive jobs (open labor market), analyzing the relationship between perceived organizational support, family support, job satisfaction and burnout. We use a sample of 246 workers with physical, motor, sensory and psychological disabilities working in ordinary jobs. To test our proposed model we used a regression‐based path analysis using PROCESS software, which is a computational tool for estimating and probing interactions and the conditional indirect effects of moderated mediation models. We find that the positive relationship between organizational support and job satisfaction was partially mediated by the levels of cynicism and the relationship between burnout and job satisfaction was moderated by family support. Employees with low support from family had identical job satisfaction with high burnout or low burnout, but employees with high support from family when they had high burnout had lower job satisfaction than when they had low burnout, indicating that the support outside work could have a negative effect in workers’ life. Practical implications and future research are discussed and proposed. 1 1 A previous version of the abstract has been published in the European Congress of Psychology‐2015‐Abstract Book.
     

Emotions naturally and laboriously expressed: Antecedents,consequences, and the role of valence

The emotion regulation literature has focused primarily on comparing the methods of surface acting and deep acting, yet scholars have also noted the importance of naturally felt emotions as a means for achieving a desired emotional display. The literature has also mainly examined positive displays, yet there are many situations that call for the display of negative emotions. To advance theory and research, we draw from theory on central principles of approach/avoidance motivation to understand why an individual would choose a given emotional display method, as well as the extent to which a given method is beneficial versus harmful to individuals. In doing so, we identify the valence of the emotion being displayed as a critical factor influencing the benefits and detriments of emotional display methods. Results of a 3-week experience-sampling study of 218 employees revealed that mood was associated with the natural display of positive emotion, promotion focus was associated with deep acting, and prevention focus was associated with surface acting. In positive display contexts, displaying emotion naturally was most beneficial (in terms of effects on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and work withdrawal), whereas surface acting was most detrimental. In negative contexts, this relationship pattern was reversed.     

The impact of role stress on workers' behaviour through job satisfaction and organizational commitment

Dysfunctions in role performance have been associated with a large number of consequences, almost always negative, which affect the well-being of workers and the functioning of organizations. An individual's experience of receiving incompatible or conflicting requests (role conflict) and/or the lack of enough information to carry out his/her job (role ambiguity) are causes of role stress. According to previous theory, role ambiguity and conflict decrease workers' performance and are positively related to the probability of workers leaving the organization. Job satisfaction refers to a positive evaluation of a job, while organizational commitment refers to an employee's attachment to the organization. The affective dimensions of organizational commitment and job satisfaction are considered to be important predictors of turnover intention, absenteeism, and job performance. In the literature, role conflict and ambiguity have been proposed as determining factors of workers' job satisfaction and their commitment towards the organization. The role of job satisfaction and organizational commitment were analysed as variables that should mediate between role ambiguity and conflict and employees' behaviour. The hypotheses were confirmed by means of path analysis carried out with data obtained from a sample of Spanish blue-collar workers employed by a bus company and a water supply company. Role stressors were negatively related to affective commitment mediated through job satisfaction. Affective commitment to the organization exerted a positive influence on performance and reduces the withdrawal behaviour analysed— intention to leave and absenteeism—although the strongest predictor of intention to leave was, in this study, job satisfaction.     

Job Satisfaction as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Job Stressors and Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment: A Path Analytical Approach

This article investigates the potential mediating role of job satisfaction between job stressors—namely, role overload-quantitative, role overload-qualitative, and lack of career development—as sources of stress on the one hand, and various facets of organizational commitment—namely, affective, continuance, and normative—on the other hand. A sample of 361 employees in a number of organizations in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) was used. Path analysis revealed that role overload-quantitative directly and negatively influences both job satisfaction and affective commitment and that lack of career development as a source of stress directly and negatively influences job satisfaction. Findings also suggest that job satisfaction mediates the influences of role overload-quantitative on various facets of organizational commitment. Implications, future lines of research, and limitations are discussed.     

A Multilevel Analysis of Relationships Between Leaders' and Subordinates' Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Outcomes

The present study examined relationships between leaders' emotional intelligence (EI) and subordinates' emotion and work attitudes and between leaders' and subordinates' EI and work outcomes. School directors and educators completed measures of EI, affect at work, job satisfaction, and burnout. A series of multilevel analyses found that leaders' use of emotion was positively related to subordinates' work emotionality and attitudes, whereas leaders' emotion regulation and self‐emotion appraisal were negatively related to subordinates' emotion and work attitudes. Leaders' and subordinates' own EI was positively related to their own work emotionality and job satisfaction. These findings support a social interactionist perspective on emotions at work and a multilevel understanding of the effects of leaders' emotions intrapersonally and interpersonally.