Changing AIDS-risk behavior.

This article contains a comprehensive, critical review of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-risk-reduction literature on interventions that have targeted risky sexual behavior and intravenous drug use practices. A conceptually based, highly generalizable model for promoting and evaluating AIDS-risk behavior change in any population of interest is then proposed. The model holds that AIDS-risk reduction is a function of people's information about AIDS transmission and prevention, their motivation to reduce AIDS risk, and their behavioral skills for performing the specific acts involved in risk reduction. Supportive tests of this model, using structural equation modeling techniques, are then reported for populations of university students and gay male affinity group members.     

Psychological predictors of sexual behaviors related to AIDS transmission

This study was designed to assess the differential value of several psychological variables with regard to predicting safe-sex behavior. A sample of 94 male and 179 female undergraduate students, ranging in age from 16 to 66 years, were surveyed about sexual issues related to safe-sex practices. The survey included scales measuring participants' knowledge of transmission of AIDS, self-perception of safe-sex communication, fear and concern about AIDS, attitudes toward AIDS victims, and self-report of risky behavior. Several interesting relationships among predictor variables were found. For instance, favorable attitudes toward AIDS victims were positively correlated with knowledge about AIDS transmission, perceived communication with partners about safe sex, and fear of acquiring AIDS. However, only two predictor variables were independently predictive of self-reports of risky sexual behavior; specifically, fear about AIDS transmission was positively correlated with risky behavior, while communication was negatively correlated with risky behavior. These data suggest a need for a model that allows for complex, reciprocal relationships between the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components of safe-sex practice. Implications are applied to research with college populations.     

Ecology, Community, and AIDS Prevention

I explore the role that may be played by an ecological view of AIDS prevention and AIDS-related social concerns. The study of AIDS risk behavior and interventions designed to prevent AIDS have challenged Health Psychology's typically individualistic perspective. Issues of empowerment, psychological sense of community, interpersonal ties, resources, and culture are central to an understanding of risky sexual behavior and helping people to guard themselves from the threat of AIDS. However, despite Community Psychology's historical expertise in these areas, the field has only recently become involved in AIDS prevention efforts. I outline how resource-based, ecological theories may prove more helpful in addressing the AIDS pandemic than the individual, cognitive theories that have typically been adopted. Sexual behavior and associated risk are tied not simply to people's personal behavior and thoughts but to the likelihood of disease exposure in their ethnic group, the power and choices associated with power in that group, and the alternative means available of meeting their overall sexual, romantic, economic, and social goals. As such, AIDS research and intervention must simultaneously address the individual, social, and cultural spheres if insights that can translate to meaningful change can be expected to occur.     

Friendship and similarities in social-cognitive and communication abilities: Social skill bases of interpersonal attraction in childhood

Although researchers have examined how different forms of similarity (e.g., demographic similarity, attitudinal similarity) affect interpersonal attraction, little work has focused on how similarities in social-cognitive abilities and communication skills affect attraction and relationship development. The present article suggests how the similarity/attraction literature and filter theories of relationship development can be integrated with research on social skills and cognitive development to provide a framework for understanding how similarities in levels of social skills may affect attraction and friendship formation in childhood. A study was carried out assessing how similarities in levels of social-cognitive and communication skills affected interpersonal attraction and friendship choices by children. It was hypothesized that children would be (a) attracted to and (b) more likely to form friendships with peers who had social-cognitive and communication skills similar in level to their own. Participants (92 grade school children) completed a battery of tasks providing assessments of four social-cognitive and five communication skills. Sociometric procedures were used to determine interpersonal attraction and friendship patterns. Results indicated that children were attracted to peers having social skill levels similar to their own. Moreover, pairs of friends had similar levels of skills related to the expression and management of emotional states.     

Application of a modified health belief model to hiv preventive behavioral intentions among gay and bisexual men

Abstract

The utility of a modified health belief model (Janz and Becker, 1984) for predicting the intention to use condoms was tested in a study among gay and bisexual men. The model explained a reasonable amount of variance. It was found that younger men's decision to have safe sex was guided by factors other than those that influenced older men. Among younger men, the intention to use a condom was positively related to the relative number of persons with AIDS in their social environment (cues to action) and to the perceived benefits of HIV preventive behavior. Among older men, this behavioral intention was much more determined by their perception of the prevalence of HIV and by their perception of their vulnerability to HIV infection. These findings are important because they may partly explain the recent increase in AIDS-risk behavior among young gay and bisexual men. The discussion focuses on these findings and on the implications for interventions aimed at promoting safe sex.     

Persuasive communications to change actions: an analysis of behavioral and cognitive impact in HIV prevention.

This meta-analysis examined the validity of various theoretical assumptions about cognitive and behavioral change following a communication recommending condom use. The synthesis comprised 82 treatment and 29 control groups included in 46 longitudinal reports with measures of perceived severity and susceptibility, attitudes and expectancies, norms, perceptions of control, intentions, knowledge, behavioral skills, or condom use. Results indicated that across the sample of studies, communications taught recipients about facts related to HIV and also induced favorable attitudes and expectancies, greater control perceptions, and stronger intentions to use condoms in the future. Moreover, messages that presented attitudinal information and modeled behavioral skills led to increased condom use. Results are discussed in the context of theories of human behavior and change and in reference to HIV-prevention interventions.     

Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior: A Study of Women's Participation in Collective Action

The present study tests the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in the context of women's participation in collective action. Participants were 387 women who completed two questionnaires with an interval of 1 year. In the first questionnaire, participants were asked to provide measures of attitudinal, normative, and control factors, as well as measures of intention to participate in 4 group-related activities over the coming year. One year later in the second questionnaire, the same women provided measures of the degree to which they had actually participated in these behaviors during the course of the year. Findings showed strong relationships between attitudinal factors and intentions, and between intentions and behavior. The addition of perceived behavioral control, as specified by the theory of planned behavior, made little difference in regression analyses. Further analyses focused on the mediating role of identification as an activist. This revealed that attitudinal considerations were only important in the prediction of intention for those individuals with a weaker sense of themselves as activists. It is suggested that expectancy-value calculations may be less important in predicting the intentions of strongly committed individuals to engage in group-relevant acts.     

What Front-Line CBO Staff Can Tell Us About Culturally Anchored Theories of Behavior Change in HIV Prevention for Asian/Pacific Islanders

Few rigorously tested primary prevention programs have been developed to prevent HIV infection among immigrant communities in the United States. This is in part because of the lack of culturally specific behavioral theories that can inform HIV prevention for immigrant communities in the United States. This article aims to develop such theories for a population—Asian/Pacific Islanders (A/PIs) immigrant communities—who have been overlooked in theory development and program evaluation. Frontline community-based organization (CBO) peer educators, an underutilized source of expertise regarding cultural factors specific to HIV infection among A/PI communities, are the sample of study Asian/Pacific Islander peer educators working at an urban AIDS service organization devoted to health promotion for this population; (N=35). They were interviewed to examine (1) detailed narratives describing instances of behavior change and (2) culturally anchored theories of behavior change which the narratives imply. Theories of the influence of positive cultural symbols on the taboo of HIV/AIDS, moderators of the effectiveness of social network influences on behavior change, and setting- and community-level processes predicting HIV risk behavior were implicit in the peer educators' narratives. Implications for future research, methodology and prevention practice are discussed.     

The interplay of emotions,elaboration, and ambivalence on attitude–behavior consistency

Previous research on the relationship between attitudinal ambivalence and behavioral prediction mainly focused on the cognitive perspective. This paper introduces the simultaneous roles played by emotions (positive or negative) and elaboration. We find that both emotions and elaboration could moderate the effect of attitudinal ambivalence on attitude–behavior consistency. Furthermore, positive and negative emotions have different psychological mechanisms: positive emotions influence attitude–behavior consistency directly; negative emotions influence attitude–behavior consistency indirectly through elaboration. This article also discusses the theory contribution, marketing implication, and avenues for future research. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceived Peer Norms,Casual Sex,and AIDS Risk Prevention1

To facilitate more effective AIDS education with heterosexual college students, an etiological study of AIDS risk behavior was conducted on a sample of 1,035 students at a large western university. In this study, “AIDS risk behavior” refers to participation in casual sex, failure to use condoms, and resistance to changing casual sex activity. Knowledge regarding AIDS had no significant correlation with AIDS-risk behavior. However, “perceived peer norms” (termed Peer Norm in this study) was a major predictor variable in AIDS risk behavior. Peer Norm was defined as perceived AIDS-risk attitudes and the behavior of one's peers. These findings contrast some what with those of Emmons et al.'s (1986) study of homosexual men. This difference may be due to the focus in the present study upon heterosexual university students as subjects. For this group, our results suggest that programs targeting the peer group in AIDS prevention education are especially needed. These might include peer-based AIDS education, emotion-oriented discussion sessions, encounters with “Peers-with-AIDS” models, and role-playing of assertive responses.     

A cognitive model of suicidal behavior: Theory and treatment

With some prominent exceptions, much of the research designed to elucidate the nature, prevalence, and correlates of suicidal behavior has been conducted from an atheoretical perspective. Conversely, psychological theories to explain suicidal behavior are largely untested by rigorous experimental designs. We propose a cognitive model of suicidal behavior that is grounded in the empirical literature on cognitive and behavioral correlates of and risk factors for suicidal behavior. In addition, we demonstrate the manner in which the theoretical components are targeted in cognitive therapy for suicidal patients. We highlight aspects of the model with less empirical support, and we propose ways those constructs can be tested in future research.     

High school students' perceptions of AIDS risk: realistic appraisal or motivated denial?

We examined perceptions of risk for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in 296 high school students living in or near a major urban center. We hypothesized that students with a dispositional tendency to deny threat would be more likely to misperceive their risk of contracting AIDS. Results indicated that study participants, overall, used their behaviors as a basis for assessing personal risk in the sense that they perceived higher risk when their behavior was in fact riskier. However, this relation did not hold for those students classified as repressors on a repression-sensitization scale; repressors' perceptions of absolute (but not comparative) risk were negatively correlated with degree of behavioral risk. In a secondary analysis, perceived absolute risk was found to be a significant predictor of intention to change AIDS-risk behaviors. This study provides support for a motivational interpretation of perceived invulnerability and has implications for the development of models of health behavior change.     

Aids-risk behavior among homosexual males: The role of attitudes and substance abuse

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a broad survey of homosexual males regarding AIDS-risk behavior. A very high proportion reported both anxiety over possible HIV infection, and a high probability of exposure to HIV. Although over 80% of respondents reported changes in sexual behavior, the frequency of monogamous, stable relationships is unchanged from that found 16 years ago, and 19% reported continued frequent sexual partners. Consistent with “health belief” models, fear of future exposure and perceived control over behavior were strongly related to behavioral change. However, those who felt they had already been exposed were not substantially more likely to decrease current AIDS-risk behavior, which may have important public health ramifications. Alcohol and drug abuse were related to “high risk” behavior, particularly among respondents who are generally motivated to use substances to decrease “tension” or self-monitoring. Thus, using substances to decrease stress may not only relate to substance abuse itself, but to the role of substances in increasing AIDS-risk behavior.     

A Comparison of Health Behavior Constructs: Social Psychological Predictors of AIDS-Preventive Behavioral Intentions

The present study focused on predicting AIDS-preventive behavioral intentions (i. e., intentions to discuss AIDS-related information and to use condoms) from constructs taken from the health belief model, the theory of reasoned action/planned behavior, and social cognitive theory. Questionnaire data were collected from 124 undergraduates using scales from previously published work as well as some new measures designed for this study. Perceived behavioral control, perceived risk, attitudes, self-efficacy, subjective norms, negative expected outcomes, and perceived severity of HIV infection were correlated with at least one intention measure; but regression analyses showed that perceived behavioral control was the strongest independent predictor of condom use intentions and of intentions to discuss AIDS information with a partner. Implications for theory and application are discussed.     

Systèmes de personnalité au niveau de l'individu : vers une évaluation de l'architecture sociocognitive de la personnalité

This paper addresses conceptual strategies in the assessment of intra-individual personality architecture, including the assessment of those social-cognitive structures and dynamics that contribute to personality coherence. The paper also relates social-cognitive analyses of intra-individual personality architecture to trait-theoretic analyses of inter-individual differences in the population. An overarching theme is that these alternative research traditions should be understood as approaches to different scientific problems. Unlike, for example, the lexical Big Five tradition of personality research, social-cognitive theories are concerned fundamentally with mental structures and dynamics that causally contribute to personality functioning and coherence, and with understanding how these cognitive and affective systems develop and function in interaction with the social environment. As has been explained by Lamiell (2003) and others, inter-individual analyses cannot substitute for the study of intra-individual personality dynamics and dispositions.     

Social Cognitive Predictors of Exercise Intentions Among Substance Users in Recovery

The present study examined the social-cognitive predictors of exercise intention among substance abusers in recovery. An extended version of the theory of planned behavior was used, accounting for past exercise behavior and self-esteem. Members of self-help groups in Melbourne, Australia (N = 201) completed an anonymous questionnaire. Hierarchical regression, multiple mediation, and moderation analysis were used. The findings showed that attitudes and perceived behavioral control were the strongest predictors of exercise intentions, and mediated the effects of past behavior and self-esteem. Psychological interventions to promote exercise among substance abusers should target attitudinal beliefs and build self-control skills.     

Health decision making and behavior: The role of affect‐laden constructs

A common criticism of social cognitive models predicting health behavior is their exclusion of affect—an important component of individual‐level decision processes for behavior change. Yet the role of affect, and its interaction with cognitions, is complex. We provide an overview of affect and pathways through which it is proposed to influence outcomes. Then, we discuss several common social cognitive models of health behavior change. Next, we highlight specific affect‐laden constructs (those that incorporate affective and cognitive components) related to health behavior change. We aim to provide clarity on terminology and measurement of the affect‐laden constructs and evidence associating them with health behavior. Finally, we discuss strategies for incorporating these constructs within popular cognitive‐based theories and provide suggestions for future work.     

Inspired by Hope,Motivated by Envy: Comparing the Effects of Discrete Emotions in the Process of Social Comparison to Media Figures

Despite considerable research and theorizing regarding the process of social comparison, limited attention has been given to the role of discrete emotions in this context, particularly as they may influence the behavioral responses resulting from comparison to similar others. In the context of cosmetic surgery makeover programs, we explore how discrete emotions may mediate the effects of social comparison on behavior and how different emotions, envy and hope in particular, may differentially relate to behavioral motivation. Based on the survey responses of 236 female students, results suggest that social comparison to media figures correlates with a range of emotional responses as well as with behavioral motivation for invasive cosmetic enhancements. Envy maintained a significantly greater association with behavioral motivation than hope or any other emotional response. Further, mediational analyses were consistent with the argument that envy, but not hope, mediates the social comparison–behavioral motivation relationship. The relationship between character identification and social comparison, as well as processes associated with downward social comparison, are also explored. This research helps illuminate the driving mechanism for social comparison's effects on behavior and has implications for better understanding how media exposure may stimulate this process.     

中国组织情境下的领导有效性：对变革型领导、领导-部属交换和破坏型领导的元分析

以91项实证研究(92个独立样本, 33517名员工)为对象, 综合使用元分析、相对权重分析和结构方程技术, 考察了中国组织情境下领导方式的有效性问题。研究者从导向(行为-关系)和性质(积极-消极)两个方面, 选择了变革型、领导-部属交换和破坏型3种领导方式; 从产出类型(态度-行为)方面, 选择了下属工作满意度、情感承诺、留职意愿、任务绩效和组织公民行为5种有效性指标。结果表明：(1)变革型领导和领导-部属交换与员工积极性态度和行为正相关, 破坏型领导与员工积极性态度和行为负相关。(2)三种领导方式的有效性有所不同：在对下属态度的影响上, 领导-部属交换作用最强, 变革型领导次之, 破坏型领导最弱; 在对下属行为的影响上, 破坏型领导作用最强, 领导-部属交换次之, 变革型领导最弱。(3)关系导向领导方式在行为导向领导方式与下属反应关系中起部分中介作用, 即除了直接影响, 变革型和破坏型领导还通过提高和降低领导-部属交换质量影响下属态度和行为。     

Countercontrol in behavior analysis

Countercontrol is a functional class of behavior that is part of Skinner's analysis of social behavior. Countercontrol refers to behavioral episodes comprised of socially mediated aversive controlling conditions and escape or avoidance responses that do not reinforce, and perhaps even punish, controllers' responses. This paper suggests that neglect of countercontrol in modern behavior analysis is unfortunate because the concept applies to interpersonal and social relations the fundamental operant principle that human behavior is both controlled and controlling-humans are not passive and inflexible. Countercontrol is addressed here in terms of conceptual status, contemporary developments in behavior analysis, its importance in a behavior-analytic approach to freedom and cultural design, applications, and research. The main conclusion is that Skinner's formulation of counter-control is scientifically supported and worthy of increased prominence in behavior analysis.