Behavior-Based Assessment of the Auditory Abilities of Brushtail Possums

Brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) were trained to press a right lever when a tone was presented (a tone‐on trial) and a left lever when a tone was not presented (a tone‐off trial) to gain access to food. During training the tone was set at 80 dB(A), with a frequency of 0.88 kH for 3 possums and of 4 kH for the other 2. Once accuracy was over 90% correct across five consecutive sessions, a test session was conducted where the intensity of the tone was reduced by 8 dB(A) over blocks of 20 trials until accuracy over a block fell below 60%. After each test session, training sessions were reintroduced and continued until accuracy was again over 90%, when another test session was conducted. This process continued until there were at least five test sessions at that tone frequency. The same procedure was then used with frequencies of 0.20, 0.88, 2, 4, 10, 12.5, 15, 20, 30, and 35 kHz. Percentage correct and d' decreased approximately linearly for all possums as tone intensity reduced. Both sets of lines were shallowest at the higher frequencies and steepest at the lower frequencies. Hit and false alarm rates mirrored each other at high frequencies but were asymmetric at lower frequencies. Equal d' contours showed that sensitivity increased from 2 to 15 kHz and continued to be high over 20 to 35 kHz. The possums remained sensitive to the 20 to 35 kHz tones even at low intensities. The present study is the first to report the abilities of possum to detect tones over this range of frequencies and its results support the findings of a microelectrode mapping survey of possums' auditory cortex.     

论孟子哲学及其贡献

孟子认为,仁义价值等是人的本性。价值是人的标志。它具有首先性、主体性。诚是善良的人性本体的现实化。可是性善说显然无法自圆其说。这便是人性悖论。义内说表明,陈述同样具有主体性。主体对对象的把握方式是推恩。推恩是一种感应方式。被感应的对象,有时候被称为神。     

A Thurstonian model for the dual pair (4IAX) discrimination method

The Institute for Perception, Richmond, Virginia In the dual pair method, the subject is presented with two stimuli in two pairs: One pair is composed of two samples of the same stimulus; the other pair is composed of two samples of different stimuli, one being the same as that in the identical pair. The task of the judge is to select the most different pair. The psychometric function for the dual pair method is derived and expressed in terms of a singly noncentral beta distribution. A table is provided that connects a measure of the degree of difference, d , to the probability of a correct response. This table assumes an unbiased observer and differencing decision rule. A table is provided to give an estimate of the variance of d¢, the experimental estimate of d. The power of the dual pair method is also investigated, and a formula to determine the sample size required to meet Type I and Type II error specifications is given. The dual pair method appears to be slightly less powerful than the duotrio and the triangular methods. Experimental investigation is needed to explore the dual pair in applied research work.     

Test scores examined with the lexis ratio

The Lexis Ratio is discussed in its application to distributions of test scores where the items of the test can be assumed to be of equal difficulty. The ratio indicates the extent to which inter-individual variation operates as a source of the variance. The concept is related to the Lexis, Bernoulli, and Poisson distributions and illustrated by urn schemata. The Ratio is applied to the scores of 560 university freshmen on theRobinson Reading Test. The relation of the Lexis Ratio to the Kuder-Richardson estimation of reliability is also discussed and the latter authors' case IV is rewritten explicitly in terms of the Ratio.     

Finding the neutral position: patient and analyst perspectives

In light of current debates between classical and intersubjective schools of psychoanalysis, the challenge posed by the latter to such basic concepts as the analyst's neutrality, anonymity, and abstinence is taken up. It is maintained that the term neutral position is today more germane and meaningful than the term neutrality, which frequently has been taken to prescribe the analyst's posture. It is proposed that for each patient the neutral position is uniquely sited and that it is incumbent on the analyst to find its location. The neutral position is defined within the context of the interaction between analyst and patient. The concept is therefore compatible with--indeed it is essential to--an intersubjective or relational orientation. The manifold reasons, conscious and unconscious, why the analyst is vulnerable to leaving the neutral position are considered. The patient's reaction to the analyst who has left the neutral position and the analyst's clinical use of this reaction are discussed.     

Assessing change with the extended logistic model

The purpose of this article is to define a method for the assessment of change. A reinterpretation of the extended logistic model is proposed. The extended logistic model for the assessment of change (ELMAC) allows the definition of a time parameter which is supposed to identify whether change occurs during a period of time, given a specific event or phenomenon. The assessment of a trend of change through time, on the basis of the time parameter which is estimated at different successive occasions during a period of time, is also considered. In addition, a dispersion parameter is calculated which identifies whether change is consistent at each time point. The issue of independence is taken into account both in relation to the time parameter and the dispersion parameter. An application of the ELMAC in a learning process is presented. The interpretation of the model parameters and the model fit statistics is consistent with expectations.     

Comparison Between Kanerva's SDM and Hopfield-type Neural Networks

The Sparse, Distributed Memory (SDM) model (Kanerva, 1984) is compared to Hopfield-type, neural-network models. A mathematical framework for comparing the two models is developed, and the capacity of each model is investigated. The capacity of the SDM can be increased independent of the dimension of the stored vectors, whereas the Hopfield capacity is limited to a fraction of this dimension. The stored information is proportional to the number of connections, and it is shown that this proportionality constant is the same for the SDM, the Hopfield model, and higher-order models. The models are also compared in their ability to store and recall temporal sequences of patterns. The SDM also includes time delays so that contextual information can be used to recover sequences. A generalization of the SDM allows storage of correlated patterns.     

The original risk: overtheologizing ethics and undertheologizing sin.

The project of articulating a theological ethics on the basis of liturgical anthropology is bound to fail if the necessary consequence is that one has to quit the forum of critical modern rationality. The risk of Engelhardt's approach is to limit rationality to a narrow vision of reason. Sin is not to be understood as the negation of human holiness, but as the negation of divine holiness. The only way to renew theological ethics is to understand sin as the anthropological and ethical expression of the biblical message of the justification by faith only. Sin is therefore a secondary category, which can only by interpreted in light of the positive manifestation of liberation, justification, and grace. The central issue of Christian ethics is not ritual purity or morality, but experience, confession and recognition of our own injustice in our dealing with God and men.     

What is nonconceptualism in Kant’s philosophy?

The aim of this paper is to critically review several interpretations of Kantian sensible intuition. The first interpretation is the recent construal of Kantian sensible intuition as a mental analogue of a direct referential term. The second is the old, widespread assumption that Kantian intuitions do not refer to mind-independent entities, such as bodies and their physical properties, unless they are brought under categories. The third is the assumption that, by referring to mind-independent entities, sensible intuitions represent objectively in the sense that they represent in a relative, perspective-independent manner. The fourth is the construal of Kantian sensible intuitions as non-conceptual content. In this paper, I support the alternative view that Kantian sensible representation is to be seen as iconic de re presentation of objects without representational content.     

The induced effect,vertical disparity,and stereoscopic theory

The induced effect is an apparent slant of a frontal plane surface around a vertical axis, resulting from vertical magnification of the image in one eye. It is potentially important in suggesting a role for vertical disparity in stereoscopic vision, as proposed by Helmholtz. The paper first discusses previous theories of the induced effect and their implications. A theory is then developed attributing the effect to the process by which the stereoscopic response to horizontal disparity is scaled for viewing distance and eccentricity. The theory is based on a mathematical analysis of vertical disparity gradients produced by surfaces at various distances and eccentricities relative to the observer. Vertical disparity is shown to be an approximately linear function of eccentricity, with a slope or gradient which decreases with observation distance. The effect of vertical magnification on such gradients is analyzed and shown to be consistent with a change in the eccentricity factor, but not the distance factor, required to scale horizontal disparity. The induced effect is shown to be an appropriate stereoscopic response to a zero horizontal disparity surface at the eccentricity indicated. However, since extraretinal convergence signals provide conflicting evidence about eccentricity, they may attenuate the induced effect from its mathematically predicted value. The discomfort associated with the induced effect is attributed to this conflict.     

Measuring rationality independent of social desirability

The development of a test to measure Elli's concept of rationality is described. In the first study discussed, a 58-item test is developed to measure rationality, and the reliability and convergent validity of the test is described. In a second study, the discriminant validity of the test is examined. An attempt is also made to reduce social-desirability content in the test by eliminating items most highly correlated with a Social Desirability Scale. The final 44-item test is found to be high in both reliability and validity. The factor structure of the test is also examined.     

Non-Accidental Knowing

Knowledge excludes luck. According to the received view, this intuition reveals that knowing is essentially modal in character. This paper demurs. Either knowledge does not exclude luck, or the entailment reveals nothing about its conceptual character. It is argued that knowledge excludes accidentality, and that this notion is not modal but causal-explanatory. There are three central tasks. The first is to explicate the concept of accident. The second is to argue that the concepts of luck and accident are “intensionally distinct,” which is to say that no member of the intension of either holds on both. The third is to argue that an anti-accident requirement on knowledge is preferable to an anti-luck analogue on abductive grounds.     

Measurement of Social Freedom: The Starkweather Social Conformity Test Revised (SSCT-R)

Freedom to conform or not to conform to peer choices is one of the traits of a child with high creative potential. The Starkweather Social Conformity Test-Revised is described and compared to the original test. The Starkweather Social Conformity Test-Revised is useful for determining conformity, nonconformity, and freedom of young children when they are given the opportunity to make a book based on their personal preferences or on the preferences of pictures chosen for their friends. The test is individually administered; it may be given to a child who is involved in a group or to a child in a therapeutic setting.     

论《老子》道之本体论的和谐意蕴及现代指向

《老子》最早赋予“道”以完整和深刻的哲学本体论意义。道的哲学本体论具有三重基本内涵,即追寻作为世界统一性的终极存在、知识统一性的终极解释、意义统一性的终极价值。三重内涵的融通合一即是和谐的意义和旨趣所在,体现为天人和谐、人际和谐和群体和谐。《老子》认为道是万物的本原,德是万物分享形上之道而各自获得的本性,二者皆以和谐为内核,和谐是道的基本特征和存在状态。和谐的终极价值以人的意义统一性为逻辑基点,和谐的终极存在以道的世界统一性为生成维度,和谐的终极解释以道的知识统一性为治理向度。     

Developing occupational standards for the advice, guidance, counselling and psychotherapy sector

The context to the development of national standards in advice, guidance and counselling is outlined. The definitions of national occupational standards are reviewed and issues arising front the model explored The approach to writing generic standards across the advice, guidance and counselling fields is explained, together with the role of specialist function units. The treatmeni of ethics and equality is examined in detail, as is the role of generic standards imported from elsewhere. The role of evidence routes linked to the standards is discussed. The article concludes ztrith a review of the standards development process and the tensions inherent in it, and with a brief outline of the process by which qualifications will emerge.     

Do positive illusions contribute to human well-being?

Psychologists such as Shelly E. Taylor have championed the idea that certain false beliefs, referred to as positive illusions, fulfill a significant role in contributing to human well-being. The goal of this article is to critically review the empirical evidence for this claim. The main concern, then, is whether the empirical evidence is conclusive in regard to the value of positive illusions for agents. The conclusion to be developed is that the latest psychological research is inconclusive in regard to the value positive illusions. This is due not only to evidence that draws into question the value of positive illusions for agents, but also due to methodological and conceptual problems with the positive illusion literature. Consequently, it could be the case that false beliefs contribute to agent well-being in specific situations, but it is difficult to claim that certain false beliefs are required for agent well-being.     

The relationship of the inner and the outer in psychoanalysis

What is internal and what is external according to psychoanalytic theory? This is a surprisingly complicated question. The terminology is often ambiguous and inconsistent as, for instance, in the use of terms like ‘object’ and ‘other’. The relationship between internal and external in psychoanalysis is analysed from a philosophical, concept analytical, developmental psychological, methodological and trauma versus internal dynamics point of view. It is argued that psychoanalytical writing is influenced by the authors’ need to create their personal psychoanalytic theory and language. This is seen as one of the main reasons for the terminological variety and ambiguity in psychoanalytic writing. It is also argued that one particular reason for difficulties concerning the internal–external terminology is the existential anxiety awakened by the threat of the essential aloneness of man. The consciousness of this has a tendency to fade and lead to unclear terminology. The importance of the transitional world as a resting place from the hard reality of this essential aloneness is emphasized. The transitional world is also seen as a necessary part of psychoanalytical practice, as an aid in striving for the truth and reality, important goals of psychoanalysis.     

The Equiprobability Bias from a Mathematical and Psychological Perspective

The equiprobability bias (EB) is a tendency to believe that every process in which randomness is involved corresponds to a fair distribution, with equal probabilities for any possible outcome. The EB is known to affect both children and adults, and to increase with probability education. Because it results in probability errors resistant to pedagogical interventions, it has been described as a deep misconception about randomness: the erroneous belief that randomness implies uniformity. In the present paper, we show that the EB is actually not the result of a conceptual error about the definition of randomness. On the contrary, the mathematical theory of randomness does imply uniformity. However, the EB is still a bias, because people tend to assume uniformity even in the case of events that are not random. The pervasiveness of the EB reveals a paradox: The combination of random processes is not necessarily random. The link between the EB and this paradox is discussed, and suggestions are made regarding educational design to overcome difficulties encountered by students as a consequence of the EB.     

A Thurstonian model for the dual pair (4IAX) discrimination method

In the dual pair method, the subject is presented with two stimuli in two pairs: One pair is composed of two samples of the same stimulus; the other pair is composed of two samples of different stimuli, one being the same as that in the identical pair. The task of the judge is to select the most different pair. The psychometric function for the dual pair method is derived and expressed in terms of a singly noncentral beta distribution. A table is provided that connects a measure of the degree of difference, d, to the probability of a correct response. This table assumes an unbiased observer and differencing decision rule. A table is provided to give an estimate of the variance of d , the experimental estimate of d. The power of the dual pair method is also investigated, and a formula to determine the sample size required to meet Type I and Type II error specifications is given. The dual pair method appears to be slightly less powerful than the duo-trio and the triangular methods. Experimental investigation is needed to explore the dual pair in applied research work.     

Coping with rising food costs in a closed economy: feeding behavior and nocturnal hypothermia in pigeons.

The pigeon's response to increasing fixed-ratio schedules in a 24-hr closed economy is marked by changes in feeding behavior during the daily light phase and by changes in body temperature during the dark phase. The time course of these responses to increasing behavioral cost of obtaining food is very different. Feeding is most affected immediately, within the first day of exposure to moderate fixed ratios. The number of times the pigeons produce the food hopper each day decreases, and the rate at which they eat from the food hopper (grams per minute) when it is available increases, as the fixed ratio is raised. Body temperature is affected later, falling to progressively lower resting levels during the dark phase as body weight drops at the higher fixed ratios when food intake is reduced. The changes in feeding and in body temperature that occur as the fixed-ratio schedule increases seem to reduce daily energy expenditures, within the constraints imposed by the experiment. The ascending and descending limbs of the bitonic function obtained when total daily operant responding is plotted as a function of fixed-ratio schedule in the closed economy is possibly related to the occurrence of thermoregulatory strategies for energy conservation. The energetic analysis of performances in the closed economy requires consideration of a variety of energetic strategies available to the species being studied.