Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review

Although the association between maternal depression and adverse child outcomes is well established, the strength of the association, the breadth or specificity of the outcomes, and the role of moderators are not known. This information is essential to inform not only models of risk but also the design of preventive interventions by helping to identify subgroups at greater risk than others and to elucidate potential mechanisms as targets of interventions. A meta-analysis of 193 studies was conducted to examine the strength of the association between mothers’ depression and children’s behavioral problems or emotional functioning. Maternal depression was significantly related to higher levels of internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathology and negative affect/behavior and to lower levels of positive affect/behavior, with all associations small in magnitude. These associations were significantly moderated by theoretically and methodologically relevant variables, with patterns of moderation found to vary somewhat with each child outcome. Results are interpreted in terms of implications for theoretical models that move beyond main effects models in order to more accurately identify which children of depressed mothers are more or less at risk for specific outcomes.     

The Mediating Role of Autonomy and Relatedness on Maternal and Child Outcomes

The current study examined the mediating role of both mother and child interactive behaviors, which granted or undermined autonomy and relatedness, on the bidirectional and longitudinal association between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing behaviors, as well as the association between maternal substance use and child externalizing behaviors. Child’s sex and mother’s drug of choice were explored as potential moderators of the mediation relationship. Data were collected from 183 dyads including treatment-seeking substance using mothers and their children (95 males, aged between 8 and 16 years old). Structural equation modeling analysis showed girls’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors at the 3-month follow-up were negatively associated with the same behaviors at the 12-month follow-up through increased relatedness undermining behaviors from their mothers at the 6-month follow-up. Among mothers with opioids as their drug of choice (DOC), children’s externalizing behaviors at the 3-month follow-up were positively associated with mothers’ substance use at the 12-month follow-up through the elevated levels of mothers’ relatedness undermining behaviors at the 6-month follow-up. Among mothers with alcohol as their DOC, maternal depressive symptoms at the 3-month follow-up were positively related to children’s internalizing behaviors at the 12-month follow-up through reduced relatedness undermining behaviors exhibited by mothers at the 6-month follow-up. To our knowledge, this is one of the first studies to attempt to unravel these longitudinal and bidirectional influences as well as the moderated mediation pathways among families with a substance using mothers.     

Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Maladjustment: The Mediating Role of Parental Behavior

This study examined parental behaviors as mediators in links between depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers and child adjustment problems. Participants were 4,184 parents and 6,048 10- to 15-year-olds enrolled in the 1998 and 2000 cycles of the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Mothers and fathers self-reported symptoms of depression at Times 1 and 2 and their children assessed parental nurturance, rejection, and monitoring and self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems and prosocial behavior at Time 2. Hierarchical linear modeling showed evidence of mediation involving all three domains of parental behavior. Findings supported the hypothesis that the quality of the child's rearing environment is one mechanism that carries risk to children of depressed parents. Interventions for parents whose symptoms of depression interfere with parenting responsibilities could help reduce the risk of some childhood disorders.     

父亲、母亲抚养压力在母亲抑郁和学龄前儿童内外部问题行为间的链式中介作用

研究旨在探讨父亲和母亲的抚养压力在母亲抑郁与学龄前儿童内、外部问题行为间的作用。以北京市某区75所幼儿园的2222名3~5岁在园幼儿及其父母为被试,采用《流调中心抑郁量表》、《抚养压力量表》、《学龄前儿童问题行为问卷》分别对母亲抑郁、父母抚养压力及儿童问题行为进行测查,结果发现：（1）母亲抑郁可以正向预测儿童的内、外部问题行为;（2）母亲抑郁对儿童内部问题行为的作用被"母亲抚养压力"、"母亲抚养压力-父亲抚养压力"两条路径部分中介;（3）母亲抑郁对儿童外部问题行为的作用被"母亲抚养压力"、"母亲抚养压力-父亲抚养压力"两条路径完全中介。综上,研究揭示了母亲抚养压力、父亲抚养压力在母亲抑郁和学龄前儿童内、外部问题行为间的链式中介作用。     

母亲抑郁对青少年抑郁的影响:亲子关系的中介作用与青少年消极情绪性的调节作用

对1708名八年级青少年（平均年龄14.30±0.48岁,男生852名）及其母亲（平均年龄39.17±2.47岁）的抑郁症状、母子关系和青少年消极情绪性进行测量,考察了母亲抑郁对青少年抑郁的影响机制。结果发现：（1）母亲抑郁能够正向预测青少年的抑郁;（2）母子关系在母亲抑郁与青少年抑郁之间起中介作用,母亲抑郁既能增加母子冲突的强度,也能降低母子亲合水平,进而导致青少年的抑郁;（3）青少年消极情绪性在母亲抑郁影响青少年抑郁的中介机制中起调节作用,仅在高消极情绪性的青少年中,母子冲突能够显著预测青少年的抑郁;但消极情绪性不能调节母子亲合对青少年抑郁的影响;（4）母亲抑郁影响青少年抑郁的有调节的中介模型不存在性别差异。     

Maternal Depression,Maternal Expressed Emotion,and Youth Psychopathology

Across development, maternal depression has been found to be a risk factor for youth psychopathology generally and youth depression specifically. Maternal Expressed Emotion (EE) has been examined as a predictor of outcome among youth with depression. The present study explored the associations between youth psychopathology and two predictors–maternal depression within the child’s lifetime and maternal EE–in a study of children at risk for depression. One hundred and seventy-one youth, ages 8–12, and their mothers participated. To assess maternal and youth psychopathology, dyads were administered structured diagnostic assessments, and mothers and children completed self-report measures of their own depressive symptoms. In addition, mothers completed the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist–Parent Report Version (CBCL) for their children. Maternal EE was assessed based on the Five Minute Speech Sample. History of maternal depression was associated with high maternal EE, and the combination of maternal depression history and maternal EE was associated with children’s own reports of higher depressive symptoms. Current maternal depressive symptoms were associated with mothers’ reports of children’s Internalizing scores on the CBCL, and maternal depression history, current maternal depressive symptoms, and maternal EE were strongly associated with mothers’ reports of children’s Externalizing and Total Problem scores on the CBCL. History of maternal depression and a rating of high or borderline Critical EE (characterized by maternal critical comments and/or reports of a negative relationship) were independently associated with children’s depression diagnoses.     

焦虑和抑郁对正负性注意偏向的影响：注意控制的中介作用

采用状态-特质焦虑量表、流调抑郁量表、注意控制量表和正负性信息注意量表,对481名在校大学生进行调查研究,考察了焦虑、抑郁对注意偏向的影响,并探讨了注意控制在其中的中介作用。研究发现：（1）正性注意偏向与注意控制呈正相关,与状态焦虑、特质焦虑和流调抑郁呈负相关;负性注意偏向与注意控制呈负相关,与状态焦虑、特质焦虑和流调抑郁呈正相关。（2）特质焦虑、注意集中、注意转移可显著预测正性注意偏向,状态焦虑、流调抑郁和注意集中则显著预测负性注意偏向。（3）注意转移和注意集中中介了状态焦虑、特质焦虑、流调抑郁和正、负性注意偏向间的关系。研究提示注意控制是一个重要的保护性因素,可缓解或消除焦虑和抑郁对注意偏向的负面影响。     

Direct and Indirect Effects of Self-efficacy on Depression: The Mediating Role of Dispositional Optimism

In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of self-efficacy on depression – specifically, to test and verify the mediating role of dispositional optimism between the two variables. Five hundred and thirty-five undergraduates from two universities were recruited and given a Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, Revised Life Orientation Test, and Self-Rating Depression Scale. Results indicated that there are indeed significant relationships among self-efficacy, dispositional optimism, and each identified dimension of depression; structural equation modeling showed that the relationship between self-efficacy and depression is partially mediated by dispositional optimism. To this effect, we concluded that to develop and improve students’ self-efficacy will reduce their levels of depression, which may have implications in college counseling.     

Maternal Depression and Child Externalizing Behaviors: The Role of Attachment Across Development in Low-income Families

Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology - Early attachment quality may be a lasting source of vulnerability or protection in children’s development. In this study, we examine whether...     

西北农村地区母亲抑郁与幼儿社交退缩:母亲回应性的中介作用

以甘肃省陇南市成县6所幼儿园301名农村幼儿及其母亲为研究对象,采用流调中心抑郁量表（CES-D）、母亲教养方式量表和Achenbach儿童行为量表（CBCL）分别考察母亲抑郁、母亲回应性和幼儿社交退缩的现状及相互关系。主要结果如下：（1）西北农村地区母亲抑郁发生率较高,父亲外出打工和贫困家庭的母亲抑郁发生率更高;（2）母亲抑郁与幼儿社交退缩行为显著正相关,母亲抑郁水平越高,幼儿社交退缩得分越高;（3）母亲敏感性和反应性与幼儿社交退缩显著负相关,母亲敏感性和反应性得分越高,幼儿社交退缩得分越低;（4）母亲反应性在母亲抑郁和幼儿社交退缩之间起部分中介作用。     

西北农村地区母亲抑郁与幼儿社交退缩:母亲回应性的中介作用

以甘肃省陇南市成县6所幼儿园301名农村幼儿及其母亲为研究对象,采用流调中心抑郁量表（CES-D）、母亲教养方式量表和Achenbach儿童行为量表（CBCL）分别考察母亲抑郁、母亲回应性和幼儿社交退缩的现状及相互关系。主要结果如下：（1）西北农村地区母亲抑郁发生率较高,父亲外出打工和贫困家庭的母亲抑郁发生率更高;（2）母亲抑郁与幼儿社交退缩行为显著正相关,母亲抑郁水平越高,幼儿社交退缩得分越高;（3）母亲敏感性和反应性与幼儿社交退缩显著负相关,母亲敏感性和反应性得分越高,幼儿社交退缩得分越低;（4）母亲反应性在母亲抑郁和幼儿社交退缩之间起部分中介作用。     

The Relation Between Co-rumination, Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Psychopathology

Little is known about which processes explain the well-established link between maternal and child symptomatology. Interpersonal coping processes may be worth exploring, as depressed mothers have characteristic coping styles that may influence interactions with their children. We examined two interpersonal coping processes as potential factors explaining how depressive symptomatology in mothers impacts child psychopathology: parent-child co-rumination (dwelling on negative affect, over-analyzing problems) and impaired problem-solving. We analyzed 198 aggressive children (most of whom also had elevated internalizing symptoms) who engaged in structured discussions with their mothers. Coders rated the extent to which dyads problem-solved and co-ruminated during discussions, and mothers filled out questionnaires assessing maternal and child symptoms. Path analysis tested whether higher levels of co-rumination and poor problem-solving statistically mediated the relation between depressive symptoms in mothers and child internalizing and externalizing behaviour. Maternal depressive symptomatology was correlated with greater child symptoms, higher rates of co-rumination and poorer problem-solving. Statistical mediation was non-significant. Results support the established link between maternal depression and child psychopathology, and suggest that dysphoric mothers and their children engage in maladaptive coping interactions.     

Maternal Expressed Emotion in Relation to Child Behavior Problems: Differential and Mediating Effects

Maternal expressed emotion (EE), including maternal criticism and emotional over-involvement, is considered an index of family emotional climate that is critical for children’s psychological well-being. Limited research investigates how each element of EE differentially contributes to child behavior problems, or explores the mechanisms, such as child emotion dysregulation, through which parental EE influences child psychosocial outcomes. This study examined maternal EE, child emotion dysregulation, and child behavior problems among 60 mother–child dyads from a community sample, utilizing multi-method and multi-reporter assessment. Findings indicated that maternal expressed criticism toward the child was positively associated with child externalizing symptoms through its relation to increased child emotion dysregulation, whereas maternal emotional over-involvement was negatively associated with child externalizing symptoms through its negative relation to child emotion dysregulation. These results provided increased support for a model in which maternal criticism remains negatively associated with child psychosocial outcomes, but the construct of emotional over-involvement is not necessarily associated with youth psychosocial problems. This study also illustrated one pathway through which maternal EE influence child psychosocial functioning, thus placing EE research in the broader context of research on family emotion socialization.     

Violence Exposure and Psychopathology in Urban Youth: The Mediating Role of Posttraumatic Stress

Understanding the mechanisms underlying the development of violence exposure sequelae is essential to providing effective treatments for traumatized youth. This longitudinal study examined the mediating role of posttraumatic stress in the relationship between violence exposure and psychopathology, and compared the mediated models by gender. Urban adolescents (n=1,358) were surveyed using the Social and Health Assessment. The proposed relationships were examined using Structural Equation Modeling. Posttraumatic stress fully mediated the relationships between victimization and depression and anxiety in girls, and partially so in boys. In addition, posttraumatic stress partially mediated the relationships between violence exposure and commission of violence in boys. Current findings support the longitudinal effects of violence exposure on adolescent mental health. Posttraumatic stress represents a unique mechanism for the development of psychopathology in girls and is also related to negative outcomes in boys. These findings have direct implications for prevention and rehabilitation efforts among violence exposed youth.     

Acute Stressors and Chronic Response: The Case of Traumatic Stress1

The nature of acute and chronic stress is explored, including analysis of three different ways of categorizing the duration of a stressful episode: the duration of the physical stressor, the duration of threat perception or demand, and the persistence of response. Of particular interest here are situations characterized by brief stressor exposure but long-term threat perception and/ or stress response. Traumatic events are ordinarily very brief but frequently give rise to chronic threat and stubborn response patterns. In many of these cases, distress clearly outlives the event and the “normal” postevent recovery period. Possible mechanisms for such situations are discussed, as are implications for the study of traumatic stress.     

母亲元情绪理念与儿童情绪调节能力发展的关系：母亲情绪调节的中介作用

以540名小学一、三、五年级儿童的母亲为对象,采用回归分析和路径分析技术,考察了母亲元情绪理念及其情绪调节对儿童情绪调节能力发展的预测作用及其机制。结果表明：（1）母亲情绪教导和情绪紊乱理念对儿童情绪稳定性的发展具有直接预测作用,且以其高冲动性为中介对儿童情绪稳定性的发展具有间接预测作用;（2）母亲情绪教导理念对儿童情绪调节性的发展具有直接预测作用,且以其情绪调节策略缺乏为中介对儿童情绪调节性的发展具有间接预测作用。因此,母亲情绪教导理念有助于其不良情绪的控制和更加灵活多样的情绪调节策略,而对自身不良情绪的有效控制和更灵活的情绪应对策略,将有助于促进其孩子情绪调节能力的发展。     

The Role of Temperament in the Etiology of Child Psychopathology

A substantial proportion of children and adolescents come to suffer from psychological disorders. This article focuses on the temperament factors that are involved in the pathogenesis of child psychopathology. It is argued that besides the reactive temperament factor of emotionality/neuroticism, the regulative process of effortful control also plays an important role in the etiology and maintenance of internalizing and externalizing problems in youths. More specifically, vulnerability to child psychopathology is determined by a temperament that is characterized by high levels of emotionality/neuroticism and low levels of effortful control. Models are hypothesized in which reactive and regulative temperament factors either have interactive or additive effects on the development of psychological disorders in children, and conceptualized in terms of a developmental psychopathology perspective. Directions for future research and clinical implications of this temperamental view on psychopathology are discussed.     

儿童忽视与同伴接受：消极社会行为的中介作用

运用问卷调查法和同伴提名法,考察小学4、5年级共503名儿童的消极社会行为（攻击行为、退缩行为、受欺负行为）、同伴接受和儿童忽视间的关系。结果发现,儿童忽视与退缩行为、受欺负行为之间存在显著正相关,与攻击行为之间相关不显著;儿童忽视与同伴接受有显著负相关。忽视通过消极社会行为的两组中介变量作用于儿童的同伴接受。     

Maternal Depression and Adolescent Emotions: The Role of Family Functioning

Maternal depression may affect children through various mechanisms, including the stressful contexts of the children’s lives and maternal maladaptive affection, behaviors, and cognition, which affect the psychopathological development of children and contribute to disorders. The aims of the present study were to explore how family functioning mediates the relationship between maternal depression and the positive and negative emotions of adolescents. A total of 430 paired questionnaires were collected from junior high school students and their mothers. The mothers completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD), and the adolescents completed the CESD, Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire, and Family Function Scale. The results revealed significant correlations among maternal depression, family functioning, and positive and negative emotions in the adolescents. The family functioning subscales of conflict and emotional expression partially mediated the relationship between maternal depression and the positive and negative emotions of the adolescents. Furthermore, the family functioning subscales of cohesion, problem solving, and responsibility fully mediated the relationship between maternal depression and positive moods in the adolescents. Analysis of the results for maternal depression, family functioning, and the emotional adjustment of the adolescents indicated that family functioning is the mediator between maternal depression and the positive and negative emotions of the adolescents. The current results suggest that adequate family functioning can prevent depression being transmitted from mothers to their adolescent children.