Competition and cooperation between groups and between individuals

Groups and individuals were compared in two experiments. In the first, two same-sex individuals or two same-sex dyads played 10 trials of a Prisoner's Dilemma matrix game (PDG) for money. Play between individuals was more cooperative and less competitive than play between groups. In the second experiment subjects played 10 trials of either PDG or mutual-fate-control (MFC) matrices. For the MFC matrix the competitive choice, which reduces the opponent's outcomes, but has no effect on own outcomes, reflects a desire to increase one's relative advantage over the opponent. Although cooperation was greater for MFC, for both PDG and MFC matrices groups were more competitive and less cooperative than individuals. A large component of the groups-individuals effect is attributed to the greater desire of groups to “win” or avoid “losing” to the opponent, regardless of their absolute outcomes.     

Competition between antecedent and between subsequent stimuli in causal judgments

In the analysis of stimulus competition in causal judgment, 4 variables have been frequently confounded with respect to the conditions necessary for stimuli to compete: causal status of the competing stimuli (causes vs. effects), temporal order of the competing stimuli (antecedent vs. subsequent) relative to the noncompeting stimulus, directionality of training (predictive vs. diagnostic), and directionality of testing (predictive vs. diagnostic). In a factorial study using an overshadowing preparation, the authors isolated the role of each of these variables and their interactions. The results indicate that competition may be obtained in all conditions. Although some of the results are compatible with various theories of learning, the observation of stimulus competition in all conditions calls for a less restrictive reformulation of current learning theories that allows similar processing of antecedent and subsequent events, as well as of causes and effects.     

Dissociating between cardinal and ordinal and between the value and size magnitudes of coins

In mathematics, the ordinal (relative) magnitude of a numerical object conveys a separate meaning from its cardinal (absolute) magnitude, whereas its physical size bears no inherent relationship to its magnitude. In numerical cognition, the ordinal-cardinal distinction has been scarcely addressed, whereas the size-magnitude distinction has been studied extensively, with the surprising demonstration of an interaction between semantic magnitude and physical size (Besner & Coltheart, 1979). The present work used coins to study the intricate relations between these meanings. In two experiments, Israeli observers (Experiment 1) and American observers (Experiment 2) performed numerical and physical comparative judgments of coins. Consensual markers of magnitude activation (e.g., the size congruity effect and the distance effect) were obtained. The results of the two experiments converged on the same conclusions. Comparisons of value were governed by ordinal magnitude. Magnitude interfered with comparisons of size, but size did not affect value. The results provided a set of clear dissociations between cardinal and ordinal magnitude and between value and size of coins. They highlight the important role played by ordinal information in magnitude processing.     

Choice between Delayed Reinforcers: Interaction between Delay and Deprivation Level

Choice between two reinforcers differing in magnitude and delay was investigated in rats maintained at 80% ( n = 10) or 90% ( n = 10) of their free-feeding body weights using discrete-trials adjusting-delay schedules in which the two reinforcers (S\[mall] and L\[arge]) were associated with different levers. In each phase of the experiment the delay to the smaller reinforcer ( dS ) was held constant, and the delay to the larger reinforcer ( dL ) was varied in accordance with the distribution of choices in successive blocks of trials. The value of dS was varied across the four phases of the experiment (2, 4, 8, and 2 sec). When dS was 2 sec, the mean value of dL was higher in the rats maintained at 80% than in those maintained at 90% of their free-feeding body weights. When dS was increased, the value of dL increased in both groups; however the effect of deprivation level was abolished. The results are consistent with a model of choice that posits hyperbolic relations between reinforcer value and reinforcer magnitude, and between reinforcer value and delay of reinforcement.     

Similarity between hypotheses and evidence

We explore two novel consequences of similarity-based likelihood judgment. In Section I, we distinguish between the evidence on which judgments are based and the hypotheses that serve as the objects of judgment. The location of a feature, whether in the evidence or the hypotheses, influences the perceived similarity between evidence and hypotheses and consequently yields judgments that are inconsistent with the requirements of probability theory. In Section II, we examine judgment of disjunctive hypotheses. For certain types of disjunctions, the assessment of similarity produces consistent nonmonotonicities: the support of a disjunction is smaller than that of one of its components. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings in terms of support theory and the principle of context independence.     

妈妈与女儿的对话

女儿：中国地质大学大一学生 妈妈：中国无神论学会理事 女儿：妈妈,我的辅导员向我介绍了一本书《心灵的自救》（peace in mind）。据说它在美国畅销了50多年。现在国内也很热销。我觉得它特别符合我的想法,好像它解决了我好多关于人生、对社会的看法问题。所以我想让它成为手边书,能经常参照着做。     

你有可能走向泛神论——关于有神论与无神论的对话

一个偶然机遇,主客之间进行了一次涉及科学与无神论诸问题的友谊式的、比较系统的对话,取得一定的效果。     

天儒冲突——中西方家庭伦理的初次冲撞

明末清初,以利玛窦为首的西方传教士们以“学术传教”为手段,在中国社会进行化交流和传教活动,由于两种明中在对待父子、夫妻以及仪礼规制等的价值取向上的差异,从而导致了西方伦理同中国传统社会的家庭伦理的剧烈碰撞。中国传统家庭伦理中的父权至上、男尊女卑和祭祖孝亲等伦常规范同天主教的伦理要求格格不入,互不相容,最终导致了两种不同化交流的中断。     

Relationship between intelligence and vocabulary

This study explored the correlations of scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III in screening language problems and scores on the three Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test subscales. Participants were 243 students ages 6 to 17 years in Grades K-11 who were identified as learning disabled, learning disabled with speech impairment, mentally retarded, and speech impaired. Analysis indicated strong correlations between the two measures, particularly between the CREVT General Vocabulary and WISC-III Verbal IQ (r = .80), WISC-III Verbal Comprehension Index (r =.83), and the Vocabulary subtest (r =.76). These results held across the grades. Supporting earlier studies of relationships of Verbal IQ and Receptive Vocabulary, correlations were lower between participants in Grades K through 2 than those in higher grades on the WISC-III Verbal IQ and the Receptive Vocabulary subtest. An analysis of the accuracy of the WISC-III for classifying students with language problems indicated improvement in classification over chance. These findings suggest that the WISC-III may be an effective screen for language problems.     

Relationships between self-concept and achievement

This study is based on a multifaceted and hierarchical model of self-concept and explores the relationships between the various facets of self-concept and academic achievement. The model of self-concept has general self-concept at the apex, then academic self-concept, presentation of self, and social self-concept. There are 7 third-order factors: achievement, ability, and classroom self-concepts (academic), physical self-concepts (social). Further, there are four specific-subject and peer and family self-concepts (social). Further, there are four specific-subject self-concepts. The argument proposed in this study is that the relations between achievement and the facets of academic self-concept are greater than the relations between achievement and presentation of self and social self-concept. This argument is not rejected. Adolescents consistently evaluate themselves across various academic subjects, but there are no relationships between achievement and other aspects of the self.     

Cooperation between clergy and psychiatrists

Pastoral Psychology -     

伦理与道德之辨正

伦理与道德两个概念的内涵及其相互关系在许多研究者那里是比较模糊的。本文试图从词源学的角度并结合黑格尔在《法哲学原理》中的相应观点对二者的内涵加以区别界定并对二者的关系加以厘定:道德是个体对自身完满性的价值追求,具有主体性与私人性;而伦理则是基于社会成员之间的互动交往而形成的规范体系,具有“互主体性”与公共性。道德是伦理的基础,伦理是道德的提升。笔者认为,对伦理与道德加以区分和厘定将有助于伦理冲突的化解、伦理关系的协调以及伦理秩序的维护。