The Disgust Scale: item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement

In the 4 studies presented (N = 1,939), a converging set of analyses was conducted to evaluate the item adequacy, factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Disgust Scale (DS; J. Haidt, C. McCauley, & P. Rozin, 1994). The results suggest that 7 items (i.e., Items 2, 7, 8, 21, 23, 24, and 25) should be considered for removal from the DS. Secondary to removing the items, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the DS taps 3 dimensions of disgust: Core Disgust, Animal Reminder Disgust, and Contamination-Based Disgust. Women scored higher than men on the 3 disgust dimensions. Structural modeling provided support for the specificity of the 3-factor model, as Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust were significantly predictive of obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD) concerns, whereas Animal Reminder Disgust was not. Results from a clinical sample indicated that patients with OCD washing concerns scored significantly higher than patients with OCD without washing concerns on both Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust, but not on Animal Reminder Disgust. These findings are discussed in the context of the refinement of the DS to promote a more psychometrically sound assessment of disgust sensitivity.     

Revisiting the factor structure of the 12-item Disgust Propensity and Sensitivity Scale – Revised: Evidence for a third component

The 12-item Disgust Propensity and Sensitivity Scale – Revised (DPSS-12) is widely used to assess the tendency for an individual to respond with disgust (i.e., disgust propensity) and how bothered an individual is by the experience of disgust (i.e., disgust sensitivity). However, heterogeneous items included in the DPSS-12 call into question the adequacy of its two-factor structure. The current study examined the factor structure of the DPSS-12 using two large, nonclinical student samples. Exploratory factor analyses revealed three lower order factors: (1) disgust propensity, (2) disgust sensitivity, and (3) self-focused/ruminative disgust. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the three-factor solution and demonstrated that the model fit better than a unidimensional or two-factor model. Further, a modified two-factor model that excluded the third factor provided a better fit than the original two-factor model. Additionally, the third domain explained a significant portion of the total variance, and evidenced a distinctive pattern of association with relevant constructs including obsessional symptoms. These data suggest the need to refine our knowledge about the latent structure of disgust reflected by this measure.     

Convergent,Discriminant, and Incremental Validities of Person–Environment Fit Scale for Creativity in Predicting Innovative Behavior

This study examined the validity of a 14-item two-factor person–environment fit scale for creativity (PEFSC) to measure the personal and environmental components of creativity. A sample of 2,475 participants completed the PEFSC for evaluating the factor structure. For convergent, discriminant, and incremental validities, a subsample (N = 362) completed the creative self-efficacy scale, support for innovation subscale of the team climate inventory, and innovative behavior measure. Results indicated the two-factor correlated model showed a better goodness of fit than the one-factor model. Measurement invariance of PEFSC was observed across different genders and educational groups. Internal consistency reliabilities were satisfactory (α  ≥  .87). The personal dimension indicated stronger associations with creative self-efficacy than with support for innovation, whereas the environmental dimension was related more closely to support for innovation than to creative self-efficacy. Incremental validity was confirmed by significant and additional explanations from PEFSC in predicting innovative behavior. These results consolidated the application of person–environment fit theoretical framework in creativity research.     

Evidence for a Higher-Order ESEM Structure of ADHD in a Sample of Chinese Children

Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) solutions have been proposed to represent the factor structures of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in recent literature, yet no studies have assessed those structures in Chinese children. The primary aim of this study was to comprehensively examine the factor structures of the Chinese version of the ADHD Rating Scale-IV (ADHD RS-IV): Home Version. Data on 458 Chinese children aged 3–8 years (boys: 246; 54%) were used to test and compare eleven factor models: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models (one-factor, two-factor and three-factor), second-order CFA model, bifactor CFA models (two and three specific factors), ESEM models (two-factor and three-factor), second-order ESEM model, and bifactor ESEM models (two and three specific factors). The results showed that, overall, ESEM models displayed better fit than CFA models. Specifically, the second-order ESEM model with three first-order factors best represented of the ADHD factor structure in our sample. In addition, measurement invariance testing results showed that scalar invariance was established across gender, age and informant groups. Implications for future research are discussed.

     

Testing Factorial Structure and Validity of the PCL:SV in Lithuanian Prison Population

This study examined the factorial structure and validity of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) in a European forensic context. A random sample of 257 criminal offenders from the Lithuanian prison population were administered the PCL:SV (Hart et al. 1995). The pattern of validity coefficients in this sample was comparable to other North American and non-North American samples. Several theoretical factorial structures for the PCL:SV were tested and compared. The two-factor model was not supported, while three- and four-factor models provided an acceptable fit to Lithuanian data. The four-factor model showed significantly better fit compared to the two-factor model. Correlations between PCL:SV factors and demographic variables confirm construct validity. However in the four-factor model, when controlling for correlations of the remaining three factors, only the Antisocial factor significantly correlated with variables related to criminal activity. It was concluded that the overall results of the PCL:SV in a male sample of Lithuanian offenders support cross-cultural generalizability of the construct of psychopathy as measured by the PCL:SV.     

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the Asian American Racism-Related Stress Inventory

The authors conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the Asian American Racism-Related Stress Inventory (AARRSI) to further examine the underlying factor structure in a total sample of 1,273 Asian American participants. In the first step of analysis, an exploratory factor analysis with 651 participants yielded a 13-item two-factor solution to the data. In the second step, a confirmatory factor analysis with 622 participants supported both the 13-item two-factor model and the original 29-item three-factor model in the cross-validation sample and generational and ethnicity analyses. The two-factor and three-factor models produced internal consistency estimates ranging from .81 to .95. In addition, the authors examined convergent and criterion related evidence for 13-item and 29-item versions of the AARRSI. Given its brief nature and generally good fit across generational status and ethnicity, the authors suggest that the 13-item AARRSI might be advantageous for research and assessment endeavors.     

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Structure of Adult ADHD Symptoms

Previous research has examined the factor structure of ADHD symptoms in adults using confirmatory factor analysis and there is mixed support for two-factor, three-factor, or more complex bifactor models. The current study re-examines these factor structures on the basis of not only overall model fit, but also criteria such as chi-square difference tests, invariance, reliability, and validity. Three datasets were pooled to form a total sample of 430 adults (50% female). Participants completed questionnaires assessing their ADHD symptoms, education, psychopathology, and parenting (the latter as validity variables). Although the bifactor models demonstrated the best fit, the reliability and construct replicability of specific factors in these models was poor. The three-factor model had good fit and demonstrated good reliability, validity, construct replicability, and some invariance across gender and dataset. Our results replicate previous studies that find superior fit for bifactor models. However, the superior statistical fit may reflect only the increased complexity of these models. The more parsimonious three-factor model may demonstrate stronger validity and clinical utility.     

La satisfaction au travail des adultes handicapés mentaux : Adaptation du Questionnaire de Satisfaction du Minnesota

The purpose of the study was to present an adaptation of the Minnesota Satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) for workers with mental disorders. Based on a sample of 181 respondents, the alpha coefficients indicated high reliability for all scores. The average scores of satisfaction are high for these workers. The original and theoretical two-factor model demonstrated inadequate model fit. A four-factor 17-item model provided an acceptable fit to the data. The results are discussed in the light of previous studies; suggestions for professional use and for future research are proposed.     

Disgust Sensitivity and Anxiety Disorder Symptoms: Psychometric Properties of the Disgust Emotion Scale

Recent research has implicated disgust sensitivity in the etiology of specific anxiety disorders. The Disgust Emotion Scale (DES) is a newly developed measure that was designed to improve the assessment of disgust sensitivity. The present study examines the psychometric properties of the DES. Exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 revealed five factors of disgust towards: (1) rotting foods, (2) blood and injection, (3) smells, (4) mutilation and death, and (5) small animals. The DES demonstrated adequate internal consistency and convergent validity. Significant positive correlations were found between the five factors of the DES and blood-injection-injury fears and obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms. Confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 provided support for the five-factor model. However, there was indication of item overlap within the factors. These findings suggest that the DES is a reliable measure of disgust as it relates to specific anxiety disorder symptoms.     

Cross-cultural investigation of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges in American and Spanish smokers

This study evaluated the factor structure of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges (QSU) across American and Spanish smokers. Using confirmatory factor analyses, the fits of one-, two-, and four-factor models of smoking craving in American and Spanish data sets were compared. The two-factor model provided the best fit in both samples. However, negatively worded items confounded the interpretation of the two-factor structure in both the American and Spanish data. The first factor had positively and negatively worded items, whereas the second had only positively worded items. The two-factor structure was reexamined, removing either the positively or the negatively worded items. Using only positively worded items resulted in a loss of fit, whereas using only negatively worded items improved model fit substantially. Thus, the results supported the generalization of smoking craving across Spanish and American smokers and suggested that negatively worded items play a larger role in the two-factor structure of the QSU than originally thought.     

Distinguishing Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Chinese Children

This study examined proactive and reactive aggression and their relation to psychosocial adjustment in three samples (N = 767, 368 girls, M age = 10.03) of Chinese school age children. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a two-factor model which distinguished both proactive and reactive aggression fit the data reasonably well, and also fit the data better than a single-factor model in all three samples. The distinction between proactive and reactive aggression was found for both boys and girls. Reactive aggression was more strongly related to reciprocated friendship (negatively), peer victimization, emotion dysregulation, hostile attributions of others' behavior in ambiguous social situations, and self-reported loneliness and social anxiety (positively) than was proactive aggression. Proactive aggression was related to positive outcome expectancies and efficacy beliefs of aggression for boys but not for girls, but the significant gender difference was only found for positive outcome expectancies. The findings suggest that proactive and reactive aggression represent two distinct forms of aggression which are associated with specific adjustment outcomes in Chinese children.     

The structure of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale: Theoretical and methodological considerations

The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS; Zigmond - Snaith, 1983) is widely used; however, its factor structure is unclear, with studies reporting differing unidimensional, two-factor and three-factor models. We aimed to address some key theoretical and methodological issues contributing to inconsistencies in HADS structures across samples. We reviewed existing HADS models and compared their fit using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). We also investigated methodological effects by comparing factor structures derived from Rasch and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) methods, as well as effects of a negative wording factor. An Australian community-dwelling sample consisting of 189 females and 158 males aged 17–86 (M = 35.73, SD = 17.41) completed the 14-item HADS. The Rasch Analysis, PCA and CFA all supported the original two-factor structure. Although some three-factor models had good fit, they had unacceptable reliability. In the CFA, a hierarchical bifactor model with a general distress factor and uncorrelated depression and anxiety subscales produced the best fit, but the general factor was not unidimensional. The addition of a negative wording factor improved model fit. These findings highlight the effects of differing methodologies in producing inconsistent HADS factor structures across studies. Further replication of model fit across samples and refinement of the HADS items is warranted.     

Teacher-initiated Motivational Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire in an Italian sample

The purpose of the study was to translate and adapt in the Italian language a questionnaire that could effectively assess perceived motivational climate in physical education. An Italian version of the Teacher-initiated Motivational Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire proposed by Papaioannou (1998) was administered to 1,681 young students, 840 girls and 841 boys, ages 11 to 14 years. Data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to assess the goodness of fit of the expected two-factor solution constituted by a Mastery Climate scale (six items) and a Performance Climate scale (six items). A good fit was indicated between the observed data and theoretical model and supported the two-dimensional structure of the test. In the total sample, the Mastery factor accounted for 33.6% of the variance and the Performance factor accounted for 15.4%. Cronbach alpha of the Mastery and Performance scales were .79 and .70, respectively.     

Ethnic Speech and Ethnic Action as Ethnic Behavior: Part 1. Construction of the Brunel Ethnic Behavior Inventory

This article reports the construction of a new survey—specifically, the Brunel Ethnic Behavior Inventory (BEBI)—designed to measure ethnic speech and ethnic action as separate, yet related, aspects of individuals’ ethnic behavior. Using Tajfel’s social identity theory as a conceptual frame of reference, this study sought an answer to the research question of how many factors actually are measured by the BEBI, and tested the hypothesis that a two-factor model (i.e., Ethnic Speech and Ethnic Action as two correlated factors) would provide significantly better goodness of fit to the correlational data than would a one-factor model (i.e., Ethnic Behavior as one undifferentiated factor). Across one pilot sample (n = 101) and two main samples (n = 120 for Sample 1, n = 148 for Sample 2), the study found that not only did the BEBI measure two factors at most (i.e., Ethnic Speech and Ethnic Action) but, consistent with the hypothesis, the two-factor model yielded better goodness of fit than did the one-factor model. Implications for the conceptualization and measurement of Verkuyten’s “ways of ethnicity” are discussed.     

An evaluation of the relationship between Gray’s revised RST and Eysenck’s PEN: Distinguishing BIS and FFFS in Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales

Recent revisions of Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) have important implications for self-report measures of approach and avoidance behaviours and how Gray’s model relates to other personality models. In this paper, we examine the revised RST by comparing Carver and White’s (1994) original one-factor solution of the BIS scale with two alternative two-factor solutions separating BIS-Anxiety and FFFS-Fear. We also examine the relationships between Eysenck’s PEN and revised RST factors. Two hundred and twelve participants completed Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales and Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire-Revised. Confirmatory factor analyses of the original BIS scale showed that the hypothesized two-factor model of BIS-Anxiety and FFFS-Fear was the best fit to these data. Associations between the revised RST and Eysenck’s PEN were examined using path analysis. In line with theoretical predictions, Psychoticism was related to revised BIS-Anxiety and BAS, Neuroticism to revised BIS-Anxiety and FFFS-Fear, and extraversion to BAS and FFFS-Fear. Distinctions between BAS subscales and their associations to BIS, N and P were made in terms of past, present and future focus. Possible explanations for mixed findings in the literature and implications for future research are discussed.     

Factor models of the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Validation with coronary patients and a critique of Ward's model

The objective of this study was to validate in a sample of 205 coronary patients a factor model for the BDI-II, especially a model that would allow for modeling of depressive symptoms after explicitly removing bias related to somatic symptoms of depression that would overlap those of heart disease. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses for ordinal data were conducted. A one-factor model, six correlated two-factor models and, derivatives thereof, seven models with a single General Depression factor and two uncorrelated factors, were analyzed. Exploratory analysis extracted two factors, Somatic-affective and Cognitive. Confirmatory factor analyses showed the worst fit for the one-factor model. Two-factor models were surpassed in goodness of fit by the models of general-factor and group factors. Among these, the General, Somatic-affective and Cognitive (G-Sa-C) model of Beck with students is noteworthy. The reduced General, Somatic and Cognitive (G-S-C) model of Ward showed the worst goodness of fit. Our model surpasses the cutoff criteria of all fit indexes. We conclude that the inclusion of a general-factor and group factors in all the models surpasses the results of G-S-C model and, therefore, questions it. The G-Sa-C model is strengthened.     

The relationship between disgust sensitivity, anxiety and obsessions

Three hundred participants, including volunteers from an obsessional support group, filled in questionnaires relating to disgust sensitivity, health anxiety, anxiety, fear of death, fear of contamination and obsessionality as part of an investigation into the involvement of disgust sensitivity in types of obsessions. Overall, the data supported the hypothesis that a relationship does exist between disgust sensitivity and the targeted variables. A significant predictive relationship was found between disgust sensitivity and total scores on the obsessive compulsive inventory (OCI; Psychological Assessment 10 (1998) 206) for both frequency and distress of symptomatology. Disgust sensitivity scores were significantly related to health anxiety scores and general anxiety scores and to all the obsessional subscales, with the exception of hoarding. Additionally, multiple regression analyses revealed that disgust sensitivity may be more specifically related to washing compulsions: frequency of washing behaviour was best predicted by disgust sensitivity scores. Washing distress scores were best predicted by health anxiety scores, though disgust sensitivity entered in the second model. It is suggested that further research on the relationship between disgust sensitivity and obsessionality could be helpful in refining the theoretical understanding of obsessions.     

Factor structure of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire: examination of a method factor

The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) was originally designed as a unifactorial measure of pathological trait worry. However, recent studies supported a two-factor solution with positively worded items loading on the first factor and reverse-scored items loading on a second factor. The current study compared this two-factor model to a negative wording method factor solution among college students. A method factor model with all PSWQ items loading on a single worry factor and reverse-scored items loading on a negative wording method factor provided as good a fit as the two-factor model. This method factor alone did not predict a generalized anxiety disorder diagnosis. Finally, the psychometric properties of an abbreviated scale containing only positively worded items were examined. The PSWQ appears to measure a single unitary construct, but response patterns differ between positively worded and reverse-scored items. Theoretical implications for pathological worry and assessment-related issues are discussed.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the antisocial process screening device with a clinical inpatient population

Research linking psychopathic tendencies to childhood behavior problems is predicated on the assumption that the findings are based on using psychometrically sound measures of psychopathic tendencies. Although evaluated with community samples, the psychometric properties of such measures have not been evaluated with inpatient clinical populations thereby limiting conclusions. Hence, the goal of the present study was to evaluate the factor structure of a widely used measure-the Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD)-with an inpatient population. Parents of 328 children (M age = 8.90 years) completed the APSD at the time of their child's admission for treatment. Although confirmatory factor analyses supported the three- and two-factor solutions proposed by the authors of the measure, the two-factor structure was more parsimonious. Factors of the two-factor model were also related to symptoms of childhood behavior disorders. The findings extend current research on the APSD's factor structure to an inpatient population.